Problem 5

Question 1

Emotion

Answer 1

Refers to a cluster of 3 distinct but interrelated sets of phenomena

a) physiological responses
b) overt behavior
c) conscious feelings

–> induced by an emotional stimulus

–> innate + universal but outward expression may be modified by cultural learning

Question 2

Arousal/

Fight-or-flight response

Answer 2

Refers to a collection of BODILY REACTIONS that prepare one to face a challenge/threat

–> either by fighting or running away

ex.: blood pressure, increased heart rate

Question 3

Autonomic nervous system

ANS

Answer 3

Refers to a collection of nerves + structures that send signals to the adrenal glands, which in turn release stress hormones

–> operate without conscious control

Question 4

Stress hormones

Answer 4

Hormones that turn the fight or flight response on or off

ex.: epinephrine/adrenaline, glucocorticoids

Question 5

James-Lange theory of emotion

Somatic theory of emotion

Answer 5

States that conscious feelings of emotion occur when the mind senses the physiological responses associated with a certain kind of arousal

–> Physiological responses to stimuli come first, these determine/induce emotions

ex.: making an angry face, will elicit anger

Question 6

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

Answer 6

Stimuli simultaneously evoke both emotions + arousal, with neither causing the other

Question 7

Two factor theory of emotion

Answer 7

States that our conscious emotional feelings depend not only on our biological responses but also on how we INTERPRET the SITUATION

Question 8

Given that fear is a negative emotion, why do people still want to see horror movies, that induce fear ?

Answer 8

Strong biological responses caused by a terrifying movie are similar to strong biological responses caused by intense joy/sexual pleasure

–> viewers will interpret the movie as pleasurable rather than threatening, due to safe environment

Question 9

Piloerection

Answer 9

Refers to a fear response in mammals in which body hair stands on end, making the animal look bigger + more threatening than it is

Question 10

Do physiological responses automatically equate with emotions in humans ?

Answer 10

No they don’t

–> the same physiological response can evoke many different emotions

ex.: When going out for a run, the increased heart rate doesn’t necessarily relate to fear

Question 11

Do animals show the same emotional responses as humans ?

Answer 11

1. Physiological responses seem consistent across mammals
   - -> but can’t be sure which exact feelings are elicited
2. Laughter like vocalizations were recorded

Question 12

What is the reason for the “freezing response” ?

Answer 12

It is an innate fear response to a threatening situation which helps small animals too avoid predators

–> one can allocate full attention to sensory inputs to help it determine what + where the threat is

Question 13

Conditioned Escape

Operant conditioning

Answer 13

Refers to an experimental design in which animals learn to make particular responses in order to

a) escape from
b) terminate

aversive stimuli

Question 14

Conditioned avoidance 
(Classical + Operant conditioning)

Answer 14

Refers to an experimental design in which animals learn to make particular responses to

a) avoid
b) prevent exposure

to aversive stimuli

Question 15

Two factor theory of avoidance learning

Answer 15

States that avoidance learning involves an interaction between classical + operant conditioning

–> explains why avoidance behaviors can be persistent

Question 16

Cognitive expectancies

Answer 16

Belief that animals learn the expected outcomes of responding/not responding and then make a decision to respond/not respond based on a comparison between the two

Question 17

Learned helplessness

Answer 17

Exposure to an uncontrollable punisher teaches an expectation that responses are ineffectual, which in turn reduces the motivation to attempt new avoidance responses

ex. : prior exposure to an inescapable shock will teach the animal thad they can’t escape any shock
- -> even in operant learning phase

Question 18

Which effect do emotions have on memory storage + retrieval ?

Answer 18

1. Emotional events are more likely to be discussed more often
   - -> memories are repeatedly retrieved, rehearsed, strengthened
2. Strongest memories are associated with strong emotions (positive/negative)
3. Strong memories of strong emotional content comes at the cost of weaker memory for surrounding details

Question 19

Mood congruency of memory

Answer 19

Principle that it is easier to retrieve memories that match our current mood/emotional state

ex.: Depressed people are more likely to recollect sad memories (vicious cycle)

Question 20

Flashbulb memories

Answer 20

Refers to a memory formed under conditions of extreme emotions that seems especially vivid + long lasting

Question 21

Can flashbulb memories be trusted ?

Answer 21

Not necessarily,

1. They are merely EMs experienced with great vividness + confidence
2. Not easy to say whether details are fully correct
   - -> can be incomplete or contain inaccurate details

Question 22

What are usually the causes for the inaccuracy in flashbulb memories ?

Answer 22

1. Source monitoring
2. False memories
   - -> when discussing memories, one might unconsciously fill in little gaps

Question 23

Amygdala

Answer 23

Lies anterior to the hippocampus and has different separate nuclei with different input + output pathways

Critical in learned emotional responses + in emotional modulation of memory storage + retrieval

Question 24

Lateral nucleus

Answer 24

Is the primary ENTRY point for sensory information into amygdala

–> contains the direct + indirect pathways which play an important role in responding to fear-evoking stimuli

Question 25

Central nucleus

Answer 25

1. Receives input from other amygdala nuclei 2. Projects out of amygdala --> ANS + Motor centers --> drives the expression of physiological + behavioral responses ex. arousal, release of stress hormones + freezing, startle

Question 26

Basolateral nucleus

Answer 26

1. Receives input from lateral nucleus 2. Projects out of amygdala --> a) Cortex b) hippocampus c) Basal ganglia --> drives modulation of memory strorage + retrieval

Question 27

Skin conductance response | SCR

Answer 27

Refers to a tiny but measurable change in the electrical conductivity of the human skin that occurs when people feel arousal --> mediated by Central nucleus of amygdala

Question 28

Indirect Pathway of the amygdala

Answer 28

Allows us to terminate the fear response if the stimulus isn't threatening at all, by providing extra info = Thalamus --> Cortex --> amygdala "Slow but accurate"

Question 29

Direct pathway of the amygdala

Answer 29

Allows us to react quickly in a life + death situation = Thalamus --> amygdala "fast and rough"

Question 30

Optogenetics

Answer 30

Refers to a technique which causes specific cells to become sensitive to light, after which researchers can use light to turn those specific neurons "on" + "off" at will --> used to manipulate individual neurons projecting to hippocampus + amygdala

Question 31

What did Optogenetics reveal about the functions of the lateral amygdala ?

Answer 31

As long as the lateral amygdala is active when the US arrives, conditioning will occur

Question 32

What does the degree of activity of the amygdala reveal about memory storage ?

Answer 32

1. Determines whether new info is stored as an EM or SM - -> emotional arousal rather causes info to be stored as EM 2. May provide a signal to strengthen the storage of information in declarative memory 3. Without its activity info will still be stored, but not as strongly

Question 33

How does the amygdala influence memory storage ?

Answer 33

By releasing stress hormones | --> activity of the central amygdala

Question 34

Blood Brain Barrier

Answer 34

Is a membrane that controls the passage of substances from the blood into the CNS, including the brain --> protects the brain from many chemicals that might otherwise enter + harm

Question 35

Epinephrine can't affect the brain directly due to the blood brain barrier. How does it overcome this obstacle ?

Answer 35

1. Epinephrine activates the brain stem nuclei that produce norepinephrine (NE) 2. NE is released to Basolateral amygdala 3. Outputs travel to hippocampus + cortex --> amount of NE released, predicts how well we'll remember

Question 36

How might the release of norepinephrine into the basolateral amygdala affect EM storage in the hippocampus + cortex ?

Answer 36

1. The activated neurons in the Basolateral amygdala project to neurons in hippocampus + cortex 2. The rhythmic activation of these neurons facilitates LTP between the coactive neurons --> this way the Basolateral amygdala facilitates learning in cortex + hippocampus

Question 37

When individuals return to a place where they experienced intense sadness or fear, they are sometimes struck with a fresh wave of grief/terror. Why is that ?

Answer 37

Because the pathways of the amygdala to the hippocampus are reciprocal --> singles from hippocampus that travel back to amygdala where these signals are incorporated into emotional processing

Question 38

Medial Prefrontal cortex

Answer 38

Allows us to process emotional stimuli in a manner appropriate to the context in which the stimuli occur --> exerts control on our emotional reactions, by modulating outputs of amygdala ex. : reaction to seeing a bear is different in zoo or woods - -> helps people to maintain balance between too little + too much info

Question 39

Phobia

Answer 39

Is an excessive + irrational fear of an a) object b) fear c) situation

Question 40

Specific phobia

Answer 40

Fear of particular objects or social situations ex.: closed spaces, heights, spiders

Question 41

Agoraphobia

Answer 41

Generalized fear of leaving home or familiar "safe" areas

Question 42

What is the cause of a panic attack ?

Answer 42

Release of epinephrine in large amounts, triggering the fight or flight response

Question 43

What causes phobias ?

Answer 43

Classical conditioning --> but some phobias might be conditioned though social transmission, as not everyone who has a fear evoking experience develops phobia ex.: tv, stories etc

Question 44

Systematic desensitization | Extinction

Answer 44

Therapy in which successive approximations of the fear evoking stimulus are presented while the patient learns to remain relaxed --> used to treat phobias

Question 45

When can VR-therapy be useful ?

Answer 45

If the desensitization process would be too expensive or dangerous ex.: fear of flight

Question 46

Posttraumatic stress disorder | PTSD

Answer 46

Refers to a psychological syndrome that develops after exposure to a horrific event --> symptoms include reexperiencing the event, avoiding reminders of the trauma, heightened anxiety

Question 47

What is the cause of PTSD ?

Answer 47

Classical conditioning --> anything one might associate with the trauma will become the CS, can therefore be triggered by a wide variety of stimuli

Question 48

Why can't patients with PTSD simply forget their unwanted memories ?

Answer 48

PTSD reflects reduced ability to use the prefrontal cortex --> PFC inhibits hippocampal function and controls the recall of unwanted memories

Question 49

Extinction therapy

Answer 49

Requires the patient to repeatedly imagine + describe the feared situation under the guidance of a therapist --> used to treat PTSD

Question 50

When is one more prone to develop PTSD?

Answer 50

1. When the hippocampal volume is smaller than average | 2. Heightened amygdala activity to negative emotional stimuli

Question 51

Algae protein channel rhodopsin

Answer 51

Allows influx of positive ions in response to illumination with blue light - -> "on" switch - -> depolarizes

Question 52

Archeal protein halorhodopsin

Answer 52

Allos influx of negatively charged chlorine ions in response to illumination with yellow laugh - -> "off" switch - -> hyperpolarizes

Question 53

Why does blocking the fear center projection impair fear learning + enhance reward learning ?

Answer 53

These neural circuits are interrelated --> circuits in the Basolateral amygdala are involved in both fear + reward learning --> one going to NAC or Central amygdala --> if one pathway is active, activity of the other decreases

Question 54

Engram

Answer 54

Refers to a specific neural network that stores unique mores in the brain

Question 55

How did researches provide evidence for the fact that, positive memories can suppress negative memories, with the help of Optogenetics ?

Answer 55

1. Placed transgenic mice in an environment that delivered shocks - -> negative memory 2. With help of optogenetics, light sensitive protein was inserted into cells of hippocampus --> light sensitive protein was linked with the hippocampal cells, making these cells light sensitive 3. Shining light on these cells will now artificially reactivate the negative memory 4. Then placed mice in a new environment that made them feel safe 5. When light is now presented, hippocampal cells will acquire a new positive emotional association