Problem 2

Question 1

Medial temporal lobes

Answer 1

Refer to the inner surfaces of the temporal lobes that contain the

a) HIPPOCAMPUS
b) entorhinal cortex
c) perirhinal cortex
d) parahippocampal cortex
e) amygdala

Question 2

Episodic memory

Answer 2

Refers to a memory for a specific event, that includes its spatial + temporal info

ex.: first day of school

• -> “what we REMEMBER”
• -> Hippocampus activity is essential

Question 3

Semantic memory

Answer 3

Refers to a memory for facts, general + personal knowledge about the world

ex.: own name, favorite food

• -> “what we KNOW”
• -> survives hippocampal damage

Question 4

What do episodic + semantic memories have in common ?

Answer 4

1. Can be COMMUNICATED flexibly
   - -> formats may be different from the way they were acquired
2. Consciously ACCESIBLE
   - -> knowing info is there, ready to be used

Question 5

In which way are episodic + semantic memories different ?

Answer 5

1. EM is tagged with a spatial + temporal context, SM not necessarily
2. EM has to experienced personally, SM can also be general info
3. EM is learned in a single exposure, SM can also be strengthened by repeated exposure
4. EM concerns specific events, SM concerns factual info

Question 6

Declarative memory

What

Answer 6

Reflects the fact that it is easy to verbalize (declare) your knowledge

–> broader term for semantic + episodic memory

Question 7

Non-declarative memory/
Procedural memory (How)

Answer 7

Shown by performance rather than conscious recollection

a) skill learning
b) classical + operant conditioning
c) priming
d) non associative learning

–> not always consciously accessible or easy to verbalize

ex.: riding a bike

Question 8

Explicit memory

Answer 8

Knowing that you have information that is accessible and can thus be used when needed

–> includes declarative memory

Question 9

Implicit memory

Answer 9

Memory that occurs without the learners awareness

–> includes non-declarative memory

Question 10

What are the three possible explanations on which memory developed first ?
(Episodic or semantic)

Answer 10

1. One has to have a certain amount of SM before EM can built on this framework
   ex. : Have to know what a prom is before knowing that you went to a prom
2. SM represents info we have encountered repeatedly from EM
3. EM + SM are fundamentally interdependent
   - -> each can affect the other

Question 11

Can nonhumans have episodic + semantic memory ?

Answer 11

1. The experiment of the “radial arm maze” with rats showed that they were able to remember where the food was and use this info flexibly

Conclusion: semantic memory

2. The gorilla was able to remember which specific type of fruit he ate, who gave it to him + when it happened

Conclusion: “episodic-like” memory

Question 12

Why is the term “episodic-like” memory used for nonhumans ?

Answer 12

It acknowledges that we cannot directly ask nonverbal animals about their subjective sense of self or their ability to perform “mental time travel”

Question 13

What are the 3 basic principles that govern how successfully a new EM or SM is encoded/stored in memory ?

Answer 13

1. Mere repeated exposure to info doesn’t guarantee memory
2. New info is easier to remember if you can relate it to things you already know
3. Deeper processing at encoding improves recognition later

Question 14

Levels-of-processing effect

Answer 14

The more deeply you process new info during encoding, the more likely you are to remember the info later

–> fMRI shows that brains are much more active during deep-processing than superficial processing

Question 15

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

Answer 15

Inability to retrieve stored info, where info is temporarily inaccessible

–> one usually succeeds in retrieving info when turning ones attention elsewhere

Question 16

Transfer-appropriate processing effect

Answer 16

Retrieval is more likely to be successful if the retrieval conditions are similar to encoding conditions

ex.: objects presented as words, are tested as words not for ex. pictures

Question 17

Free recall

Answer 17

Memory task in which one is asked an open-ended question, and one is required to supply the answer from memory

Question 18

Cued recall

Answer 18

Memory task in which one is given some kind of clue to the correct answer

ex.: what is the latin word for arch: F___

Question 19

Recognition

Answer 19

Memory task in which one has to pick out the correct answer from list of possible options

–> multiple choice

Question 20

Desirable difficulties phenomenon

Answer 20

The idea that “difficult” learning conditions, meaning the ones that challenge your ability to recall, promote better memory of the info being recalled

Question 21

Consolidation period

Answer 21

Most forgetting occurs in the first few hours or days after learning

–> info that survives the critical first few days might last in memory indefinitely

Question 22

Directed forgetting

Answer 22

Occurs when info is forgotten on demand

–> suggest that we may have more power over what we remember than we think

Question 23

The role of “Interference” on LTM

Answer 23

When 2 memories overlap in content, the strength of either or both memories may be reduced

Question 24

Proactive interference

Answer 24

Old info can disrupt new learning

–> breaking habits

ex.: Phase of mistakenly using the old password when it was renewed

Question 25

Retroactive Interference

Answer 25

New info can disrupt old learning ex.: Inability to remember old password, when having mastered to remember new one

Question 26

Source monitoring error

Answer 26

Remembering information but being mistaken about the specific episode, which is the source of that memory --> semantic content is preserved, episodic content distorted ex.: thinking one has built a nice sentence by oneself when indeed, one was just retrieving a sentence previously seen in a book from memory (unintentional plagiarism)

Question 27

Diese-Roediger-McDermott Paradigm | DSM

Answer 27

People are asked to learn lists of words, where the words all share a particular implicit theme. The participants correctly identify studied words + reject unrelated words --> BUT: clim to recognize the theme word even though it wasn't on list

Question 28

What might explain the DSM paradigm ?

Answer 28

Source monitoring 1. People encode the meaning of the words (theme) and form a memory by thinking about it 2. Then they mistakenly remember having encountered the word on the list

Question 29

False memory

Answer 29

Memory of events that never actually happened --> likely to occur when one is prompted to imagine details, which is then falsely remembered as the truth

Question 30

Why is the loss of a single brain cell NOT dramatic for the maintenance of memory ?

Answer 30

We have networks of neurons that respond primarily to info representing simple, familiar categories --> this way all memories would only be lost if the whole network would be affected

Question 31

Anterograde amnesia

Answer 31

A severe loss of the ability to from new episodic + semantic memories

Question 32

Is the hippocampus critical for forming new semantic memory ?

Answer 32

NO, encoding of new semantic memories depends primarily on the Parahippocampal + Perirhinal cortices than on hippocampus BUT: A functioning hippocampus is critical for forming new EMs

Question 33

What kind of activity does the Hippocampus show in memory tasks like DSM ?

Answer 33

1. Initial encoding of words that would be subsequently remembered --> less activity for words that were subsequently forgotten 2. High activity for studied list words AND unstudied theme words in DSM - -> explains false recognition

Question 34

Which brain region is able to correctly distinguish true episodic memories from false ones ?

Answer 34

A small area in the parahippocampal cortex --> only fires when presented with studied words, NOT unstudied theme word

Question 35

Retrograde amnesia | Graded vs. flat

Answer 35

Loss of memories of events that occurred before the injury Graded: better memory of memories lying in the far past Flat: No difference in recent vs past memories

Question 36

Ribot gradient

Answer 36

Retrograde memory loss is worse for events that occurred shortly before the injury than for events that occurred in the distant past

Question 37

Standard consolidation theory

Answer 37

1. Hippocampus + MTL structures are required for the initial storage + retrieval of the EM 2. EM consists of different components stored different areas of the cortex 3. With time, the components can form direct connections with each other - -> help of Hippocampus is no longer required => hippocampal activity is strongest for recently acquired info (Graded retrograde amnesia)

Question 38

Multiple trace theory | MTT

Answer 38

1. When an event is experienced it can be stored as an EM by an ensemble of neurons in the hippocampus + neocortex 2. Each time the memory is retrieved, the retrieval itself becomes a new EM 3. Hippocampus is essential as it stays part of the connectivity between the EM components even after they consolidate => hippocampal activity is the same for recent + old infos (Flat retrograde amnesia)

Question 39

How does MTT explain the difference between EM + SM ?

Answer 39

1. EM always come first 2. SM are the results of experiences that have become detached of the rich contact in which they were acquired (EM) 3. SM do not require the hippocampus

Question 40

Amnesia

Answer 40

1. Inability to learn new things or loss of previous knowledge 2. Losses may differ for LTM or STM 3. The farther posterior in the Medial temporal lobe the damage is, the worse the amnesia 4. Can acquire SM, not able to acquire EM

Question 41

H.M.

Answer 41

His medial temporal lobes were removed bilaterally, in order to minimize the seizures mediating + interrupting his everyday life --> resulted in Anterograde amnesia coupled with partial Retrograde amnesia BUT: He had normal STM + signs of non-declarative memory

Question 42

Korsakoffs syndrome

Answer 42

Form of Amnesia, associated with long term alcohol abuse, that leads to vitamin deficiencies --> degenerated diencephalons, especially mammilary bodies + dorsomedial thalamus

Question 43

K.C.

Answer 43

Developed source amnesia after severe head injury --> BUT: Intact semantic memory which showed that SM + EM are independent from one another

Question 44

Source amnesia

Answer 44

Not remembering the source/episode in which the information was learned

Question 45

What does damage to the Medial temporal lobe structures or the midline Diencephalon lead to ?

Answer 45

1. Graded retrograde amnesia 2. If hippocampus isn't affected, one may still be able to form new EMs 3. Implicit + explicit memories will still stay intact - -> suggests that their processes rely on different brain stems

Question 46

Priming

Answer 46

Refers to a change in the processing of a stimulus as a result of prior exposure to the same stimulus ex.: When presented with the letters MOT___, one will complete the word into MOTEL when having viewed the word previously

Question 47

Which role do the MTL structures play in the consolidation of memories ?

Answer 47

The provide a binding area for multiple cortical regions involved in the initial encoding of the memory ("Relay station") --> thus if damaged, new memories cannot be formed

Question 48

M.S.

Answer 48

Lesions to the visual cortex --> could form non-declarative but no declarative memories