Problem Solving and Decision-Making

Question 1

Functional Fixedness

Answer 1

Can thus be defined as the inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner.

Question 2

Algorithm

Answer 2

Formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem.

Question 3

Deductive (top-down) reasoning

Answer 3

Starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given.

Question 4

Inductive reasoning (bottom-up)

Answer 4

Seeks to create a theory via generalizations.

Question 5

Availability heuristic

Answer 5

Is used when we try to decide how likely something is

Question 6

Representative heuristic

Answer 6

Involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category.

Question 7

Base rate fallacy

Answer 7

Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information

Question 8

Disconformation principle

Answer 8

The evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work.

Question 9

Confirmation bias

Answer 9

Is the tendency to focus on information that fits an individual’s beliefs, while rejecting information that goes against them.

Question 10

Overconfidence

Answer 10

Tendency to erroneously interpret one’s decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible.

Question 11

Belief perseverance

Answer 11

Refers to the inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary

Question 12

Intution

Answer 12

Ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence-developed by experience

Question 13

Goal of reinforcement

Answer 13

To make a behavior more likely to occur

Question 14

Fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement

Answer 14

Rewards are provided after a specified number of responses

Question 15

Variable ratio schedule of reinforcement

Answer 15

Rewards are provided after an unpredictable number of responses

Question 16

Fixed interval schedule of reinforcement

Answer 16

Rewards to a response are provided after a specified time interval has passed

Question 17

Variable interval schedule of reinforcement

Answer 17

Rewards to a response are provided after an unpredictable time interval has passed

Question 18

Dissociation

Answer 18

experience of a split between different aspects of psychological functioning: disruption in identity, memory, or consciousness

Question 19

Sensorimotor

Answer 19

(birth to 2 years): Piaget stages of learning: children learn to separate themselves from objects. They recognize their ability to act on and affect the outside world, and learn that things continue to exist even when they are out of sight (object permanence)

Question 20

Preoperational

Answer 20

(2-7 years): Children learn to use language while they continue to think very literally. They maintain an egocentric (self-centered) world view and have difficulty taking the perspective of others

Question 21

Concrete Operational

Answer 21

(7-11 years): Children become more logical in concrete thinking. They develop inductive reasoning, they can reason from specific situations to general concepts

Question 22

Formal operational

Answer 22

(11 years and older): Children develop the ability to think logically in the abstract. They develop deductive reasoning skills-the ability to apply general concepts in specific situations–and they learn to think theoretically and philosophically

Question 23

Learning theory of language development

Answer 23

(Behaviorist theory) Argues that language is a form of behavior and thus is learned through operant conditioning

Question 24

Nativist theory of language development

Answer 24

Emphasizes innate biological mechanisms-the language acquisition device

Question 25

Interactionist theory

Answer 25

Emphasizes the interplay between environmental cues and innate biology in the development of language

Question 26

Broca’s area

Answer 26

Located in the frontal lobe, and is primarily involved in speech production

Question 27

Wernicke’s area

Answer 27

Found in the temporal lobe, and contributes primarily to the understanding of language

Question 28

Amygdala

Answer 28

Responsible for the emotional reactions of fear and anger

Question 29

Hypothalamus

Answer 29

Regulates the autonomic nervous system’s sympathetic and parasympathetic functions, including the effects of stressors on heart rate, sweating, and arousal

Question 30

3 Major components of attitudes

Answer 30

1. Affective component: a person’s feelings or emotions about an object, person, or event
2. Behavioral component: influence that attitudes have on behavior
3. Cognitive component: beliefs or knowledge about a specific object of interest

Question 31

Cognitive dissonance

Answer 31

Conflict or inconsistency between internal attitudes and external behaviors. People have an inherent desire to avoid the internal discomfort associated with a mismatch between attitudes and behaviors. To resolve cognitive dissonance, people either change their attitudes towards a situation, change their perception of their behavior, or modify the behavior.

Question 32

Stages of Sleep

Answer 32

1. Stage 1: light sleep, alpha waves (state of wakefulness, but one that is more relaxed than the fully alert state)-REM sleep (rapid eye movement)
2. Stage 2: associated with bursts of brain wave activity that indicate a full transition into sleep
3. Stage 3: delta waves, much longer than alpha waves, are first seen, reflecting the transition into deep sleep
4. Stage 4: deepest sleep: almost entirely delta waves