Protected Areas History and Management

Question 1

what are the four periods of conservation management in africa?

Answer 1

1. origins of conservation– up to 1900
2. consolidation conservation (protection, preserving, propagating) – 1900 - 1960
3. measuring, monitoring, and manipulating – 1960-1990
4. new thinking (integration, innovation, innovation) – 1990s and beyond

Question 2

conservation biology is:

Answer 2

concerned with phenomena that affect the maintenance, loss, and restoration of biodiversity. science of sustaining evolutionary processes that give rise to diversity

Question 3

conservation practices pre-1900

Answer 3

• Pappe and Brown
• Field naturalist clubs, acclimatization societies, travel adventure publications
• period of extermination large herds and many fauna in the Cape.
• privately owned game reserves that excluded public provided some protection to allow for sport hunting.
  -no scientific method to management, biologists were separate. prevented poaching, tried to increase desirable hunting species and killed off ‘vermin’ predators

Question 4

Ludwig Pappe and John Brown

Answer 4

• conservation of the cape in 1846. origins of modern western approach to conservation
• Pappe created acts to protect natural ecosystems through creation of official reserves
• Brown fought deforestation in Cape region, wrote about management and conservation issues
• Brown influenced George Marsh to write Man and Nature, which influenced the creation of Yellowstone National Park in 1872

Question 5

res nullius

Answer 5

sentiment before 1900s that wildlife couldn’t be owned, so killing them wasn’t a real crime

Question 6

kruger national park

Answer 6

• originally Sabi Sands Reserve (1895)
• became a national park in 1926. from provincial control to national control, recreational and scientific activities but no hunting
• land owned by mining companies, farmers want pasture land
• veterinarians vs. ecologists. fences for livestock health vs. free movement for migrations
• 1960s-70s constructed artificial watering holes to increase tourism. caused overgrazing, selected for species that need lots of water. increase of grazers attracted lions. increased predation and competition caused sable and roan populations to fall by almost 90%. increased elephant populations threatened baobab trees

Question 7

conservation practices 1900-1930

Answer 7

• first national park established, first reserve managed by scientists/ecologists
• national parks recreation create awareness that they aren’t just empty land
• 1916 Clements introduces the idea of plant succession - hard to get back what you lose
• animals dictate where national parks are created. small species-specifc parks
• managament institutions (south africa: SANParks, tanzania: TANAPA) are created but with no scientific direction and a general lack of formal biology education.
  -later, regional institutions manage regional parks in coordination with these institutions

Question 8

what are the 3 Ps of the second period of conservation management?

Answer 8

protection, preserving, propagating

Question 9

what are the 3 Ms of the third period of conservation management?

Answer 9

measuring, monitoring, manipulating

Question 10

what are the 3 Is of the fourth period of conservation management?

Answer 10

integration, innovation, internalization

Question 11

natal national park

Answer 11

first national park in south africa, established in 1910

Question 12

conservation practices 1930s-1960s

Answer 12

• animal ecologist charles elton introduced ideas on populations, communities, energy flow, defended predators as an important part of the ecosystem
• ecology knowledge still not really integrated into management. managed based on principles of agriculture productivity
• King Edward VII and Denys Hatton
  -as new technology (cars and automatic guns) made hunting easier, Edward VIII argued in the press that photographing the animals was more dangerous, a greater challenge, took more skill than killing them did. changed safari mentality
• first national parks established for the purpose of protecting rare species
• conflicts between biologists that report to directors and game rangers that report to wardens

Question 13

Dongola Wildlife Sanctuary

Answer 13

one of the earliest protected areas created for scientific purposes, but was abolished and transformed into agriculture in 1947

Question 14

conservation practices 1960s-1990s

Answer 14

• scientific knowledge finally integrated into management
• translocation techniques (capture, sedation, transport, quarantine, release), improved capture technology
• IUPN, UNEP, WWF conservation organizations get big
• big five tourism, parks are making money
  -fire ecology and invasion biology, island biogeography of isolated regions
  -purpose-driven rather than understanding-driven culture and research
• building networks of protected areas
  -expansionist perspective?

Question 15

what are the “big five”?

Answer 15

elephants, lions, giraffes, leopards, rhinos

Question 16

conservation practices 1990s-present

Answer 16

• integration of different fields of knowledge, including indigenous knowledge
• innovative scientific understanding that becomes less emotional and more intellectual
  -fire dynamics, restoration, population dynamics, ecosystem services continue to become more important aspects of management
• birdwatching tourism
• Parks for Development program helps fund schools, medical services, create jobs in rural areas
  -benefits to locals
  -local involvement in science and management
  -promoting sense of community and urgency
• peace parks (span political borders)
• changing the culture of national parks away from fortress conservation
• ecological corridors, better understanding of the importance of migration patterns and impacts of fencing
• adaptive management

Question 17

strategic adaptive management

Answer 17

• focus on developing monitoring protocols that are cost effective but provide enough information
• trial and error, learning from feedback loops
• recording procedures and monitoring results
• aknowledge imperfect knowledge, adapt as new info becomes available
• set thresholds of potential concern

Question 18

biosphere reserves

Answer 18

Man and Biosphere. UNESCO
area proposed by residents and ratified by a national committee, demonstrates approaches to living and working in harmony with nature
- zoning to regulate activities (core-buffer-transition)

Question 19

what information is needed to develop a good management plan?

Answer 19

1. distributional information (species and population numbers/diversity)
2. ecological information, state of succession, long term viability based on the needs of species in terms of successional period
3. vulnerabilities (edge effect, spacial configurations, climate change, what happens if keystone species is lost)
4. population activities/behavior, what they need
5. environmental impacts

Question 20

systematic conservation planning

Answer 20

way to find the most effective reserve design and protect highest priority areas

Question 21

alpha diversity

Answer 21

20 species in park A, 45 in park B. park B has more alpha diversity

Question 22

beta diversity

Answer 22

2 habitats within park A share 50% of the same species, they share 60% in park B. park A has more beta diversity

Question 23

gamma diversity

Answer 23

the studied plots are shifted in location and park A has 20 different species in the new plot, park B has 15 different species compared to the old plot. park A has higher gamma diversity