PSY1002 SEMESTER 2 - WEEK 3

Question 1

define semantic memory

Answer 1

general world knowledge including objects, people, concepts and words

Question 2

explain semantic memory structure as Hierarchical Network Model (Collins & Quillians)

Answer 2

hierarchy of concept representation
spreading activation between nodes via connections, allowing access of both common features and differentiation of differing features
3 levels- superordinate, basic, subordinate

Question 3

explain the 3 levels of semantic memory hierarchical network model (by giving examples)

Answer 3

superordinate level - distinctive but not as informative (eg: mammals and reptiles)
basic level - those which category members share highest number of features, so more informative than other level and distinct from other concepts at same level (eg: cats and dogs)
subordinate level - informative but not so distinctive (eg: spaniel and border collie)

Question 4

why is basic level in hierarchical network model for semantic memory most used

Answer 4

we learn basic categories first, and they typically share common shapes and movements so allows faster categorising of pictures and used more frequently in free naming

Question 5

give an issue of heirarchical network model

Answer 5

doesn’t account for semantic relatedness eg: canary links to both island, bird but doesn’t fit into hierarchy. semantic activation means we may also link it to other islands, making hierarchical model useless
instead use associative networks model

Question 6

outline associative network model (Collins & Loftus, 1975) - semantic memory structure

Answer 6

replaces hierarchical model with ideas of semantic relatings, stored as relationship network
mindmap structure showing links between different concepts. when objects are categorised “activation” spreads from objects corresponding concept node to other associated nodes

Question 7

give advantages of associative networks model

Answer 7

cognitive economy = efficient mental storage, allows for generalisation of new objects, predicts distance effect

Question 8

give weaknesses of associative network model

Answer 8

not able to account for typicality effects (has no mechanism to explain why some subordinates were considered better than others)

Question 9

whats feature comparisons approach for semantic memory structures

Answer 9

hierarchical relationships computed using reasoning processes (not directly stored in semantic networks)
deciding how concepts are related uses comparison of features of concepts with typicality effects reflecting degree of overlapping similarities

Question 10

outline neuroscience-inspired approach for semantic memory structure

Answer 10

focus on where brain concepts are located
theories suggest either concepts are directly represented by connections between differing sensorimotor areas
or
distinct brain area binds together feature, with conceptual representations distinct from sensory and motor areas

Question 11

whats semantic dementia

Answer 11

the progressive deterioration in semantic memory, leads to loss of knowledge about objects, people, concepts and words

Question 12

what is classical categorisation theory (Aristotle)

Answer 12

“concepts as definitions”
categories are defined by necessary, and sufficient feature
eg: separating numbers into odd/even rules - defining feature for this example is odd numbers cannot be evenly divided by 2

Question 13

give an advantage of the classical theory of categorisation

Answer 13

definitions allows easy identification of whether items are categories members/ or not

Question 14

name 5 issues with classical theory of categorisation

Answer 14

family resemblance
central tendency
graded membership
empirical problems
typicality effect

Question 15

explain classical theory of categorisation issue of family resemblance

Answer 15

different members of a category share different features eg: chair can have 3/4 legs, no arms etc. difficult to find one definition, and category members sharing family resemblance suggests you can state they share a family resemblance but cannot point to their exact shared feature

Question 16

explain classical theory of categorisation issue of central tendency

Answer 16

categories exhibit an averaged ideal. eg: solid representatio of what a dog is, with an average idea of their physical looks

Question 17

explain classical theory of categorisation issue of graded membership

Answer 17

some members are more typical for a category than others
eg: eagles are seen more of a bird than a penguins

Question 18

explain classical theory of categorisation issue of empirical problems

Answer 18

determines whether something is part of a category but, doesn’t make distinctions between category members

Question 19

explain classical theory of categorisation issue of typicality effect

Answer 19

typicality of category member depends on how they compare to an abstract combination of most frequent attributes
semantic dementia patient show progressive impairment of conceptual knowledge = when asked to match words and pictures to categories they make more errors on atypical>typical item

Question 20

what are 3 modern categorisation theories

Answer 20

prototype theory, exemplar theory, explanation-based theory

Question 21

outline modern categorisation “prototype theory” (Rosch, 1975)

Answer 21

category determined by mental representation of a weighted average for all category members
important features shared by most members (common- 4 legs, fluffy) and not by members of other categories (distinct- barks at other )

Question 22

name issues of modern categorisation ‘prototype theory’

Answer 22

• cannot explain how we can tell size of category (can state how many dog types, but not elephant)
• cannot explain how we can add new members to categories, adding in new member adjust prototype

Question 23

explain modern categorisation “exemplar theory” which aims to address prototype theories issue

Answer 23

categories consist of separate representations of physical features of experienced examples of category- categorisation by comparison to all memories of similar thing, contents bringing to mind specific experience involving similar items
allow us to work out size, adding new member, less typical an object the less members of concept are remembered

Question 24

outline issues of modern categorisation ‘exemplar theory’

Answer 24

cannot explain how we retrieve all category members to define a category if our retrieval is based on category membership (theoretical circularity?)
how can we form abstract categories for things without physical features?- social gropu, politics wetc

Question 25

explain modern categorisation “explanation-based theory” which aimed to adress exempalr theory issue

Answer 25

categories are based on common causal characteristics rather than physical features eg: instead of waterfowl as animal with webbed feet, categorised as swimmer
- categories can be created ad hoc using world knowledge and explanations - allows us grouping items together that makes sense for specific category (eg if category is to name distinctive smelling item, say perfume and skunks which ahve no other similar characteristic)

Question 26

outline Barsalou’s research for explanation-based modern categorisations theory

Answer 26

do ad hoc categories (eg: distinctive smelling thing) have same features as common categories (fruit)
ppt high average agreement regarding category membership, typicality of members and production of exemplars
ad hoc category similar to common category in that exhibits family resemblance, central tendency, graded membership

Question 27

what does categorising items allow us to do

Answer 27

semantic memories allowing us forming representations of categories, allowing predictions of what could happen next “category induction”
can producitvely combine concepts, allowing combination of new concept

Question 28

explain typicality rating as methods of measuring categorisation

Answer 28

ranked from being best-worst examples eg: rank following chair photos (IV) from best to worst example. DV is average ranks

Question 28

name 3 methods for measuring categorisation

Answer 28

typicality ratings, exemplar production, category membership

Question 29

outline Armstrong et al’s (1983) study for typicality ratings measurement of categorisation

Answer 29

asked typicality ratings for odd numbers
although odd/even are definitive categories certain numbers perceived as “more odd”, shows presence of graded membership

Question 30

describe exemplar production method for measuring categorisation

Answer 30

recall as many items of a specific category
eg: state as many pieces of furniture as you can DV is frequency of production or it’s position in list

Question 31

explain category membership verification as method for measuring categorisation

Answer 31

ask whether certain items belong to categories or not eg: is this exemplar in category fish, with DV as accuracy of repsonse and reaction time. fast reaction time suggests a prominent member

Question 32

why are schematas referred to as an explanation based event category

Answer 32

semantic memories allow us to form a schemata encapturing commonly encountered aspects of life, allowing formations of blueprints to predict a sequence of events

Question 33

explain category induction

Answer 33

ability to generalise what we know about a category to novel object, and infer property of one category onto another

Question 34

what impacts the likelihood of category induction

Answer 34

how relevant to kinds of categories being compared

Question 35

what is though regarding stereotypes and categories

Answer 35

stereotypic knowledge learnt and represented same as conceptual system, represented as hierarchies, supporting notion that stereotype conceptual representations may operate in same way as more general conceptual system

Question 36

explain impact of expertise for categorisation

Answer 36

richer conceptual representations, high agreement level in feature lists
basic level of categorisation shift to lower level of hierarchy when in domain of expertise however in domain outside of area, considered usual level of hierarchy to be basic level

Question 37

name the 5 schema process

Answer 37

selection, abstraction, interpretation, integration, reconstruction

Question 38

outline Bransford & Johnson (1972) study into the schema process of selection

Answer 38

ppts told to either:
1. study text, not told topic, free recall
2. study text, given topic, free recall
3. told topic, study text, free recall

found schema activation helps encoding
best performance in ppts told before test

Question 38

outline schema process - selection

Answer 38

selection of most salient, relevant info central to the schema we are currently employing
eg: when shopping match preferences against supply, quality

Question 38

outline schema process - abstraction

Answer 38

surface form of info (ambiguities in picture, or bad wording) is converted into more abstract representations that capture meaning, but schema-consistent

Question 39

explain Carmichael et al (1932) study into abstractions

Answer 39

ppts shown abstract drawing, told different concepts of what it was, redraw
if told what item was, redraw image more inline with schemas

Question 40

outline schema process - interpretation

Answer 40

interpretation fills in gaps for what we expect, in schema-consistent mannere

Question 41

explain Johnson et al (1973) study into interpretation

Answer 41

2 groups told info that with 1 word change and asked if sentance then read was correct, and with cause schema activation nshowed greater old “judgements”

Question 42

outline schema process - integration

Answer 42

integrate info into holistic, generalist and already held schema

Question 43

explain Bransford et al (1972) study into integration

Answer 43

ppts heard pieces of info describing a scene, asked to make judgement for their visualisations based on perceptions (to integrate into a holistic representation) - asked which sentence was the one they heard
results showed integration of info is used to form schema-consistent holistic representations

Question 44

what scene description and sentences did ppts hear in Bransford study into integration

Answer 44

“There is a tree with a box beside it, and a chair on top of the box. The box is to the right of the tree. The tree is green adn extremely tall
a) box to right of tree (old info)
b) chair to right of tree (new but permissible = interference)
c) box to left of tree (new info and relation change)
d) chair to left of tree (new info and subject change)

Question 45

outline Barletts (1932) War of Ghosts study into reconstruction

Answer 45

British students given Native American study, and recalled different info due to perceptual difference from own experiences. details reconstructed to fit own cultural schemas and norms

Question 46

outline Brewer & Treyens (1981) study into recall of principles office for “reconstruction”

Answer 46

could remember things like chair, desk, posters but added (reconstructed) extras as made sense in their schemas of office