PSY2004 S2 W8 Gender Identity and Sexuality

Question 1

What are theories underlying increases in gender diversity/sexual identities?

Answer 1

Biological
Self Identity
Differences in cognition & Sensory Processing

Question 2

What is the Universal Design for Learning (UDL)?

Answer 2

UDL adapts education to fit diverse learner needs

Question 3

What are the 3 UDL principles?

Answer 3

Representation (the “what”): Offer information in varied formats (e.g., visual, auditory).

Action/Expression (the “how”): Provide different ways for learners to interact and express themselves.

Engagement (the “why”): Increase motivation through choice, relevance, and collaboration.

Question 4

What is UDL in sexual education?

Answer 4

UDL makes SE accessible and engaging for all

Question 5

What’s the historical view of sexuality and neurodevelopmental condition?

Answer 5

individuals with neurodevelopmental conditions as “asexual” ( - autism) or “childlike” (- down syndrome)

Question 6

What did the historical view lead to?

Answer 6

Led to a lack of research and clinical attention
Ethical concerns limited research – informed consent? Vulnerability? Exploitation?
Biases hindered early studies. E.g.: focus on victimisation

Question 7

Where should we focus when moving forward from the historical view?

Answer 7

Focus on sexual education, consent, and healthy relationships.
Studies on the impact of neurodevelopmental conditions on sexual development and expression.
Research on gender identity and sexual orientation within neurodivergent populations
Emphasis on the need for tailored support

Question 8

What is sexual attraction?

Answer 8

Refers to who a person is physically, romantically, and/or emotionally attracted to

Question 9

What’s the split of the research on sexuality and gender and neurdevelopmental conditions?

Answer 9

Most research focuses on autism. There is very little research on ADHD and essentially none on William’s Syndrome & Down Syndrome.

Question 10

What is sexual identity?

Answer 10

how a person identifies their sexual attraction and orientation (you can be attracted to someone who doesn’t fit your sexual identity).

heterosexual, homosexual (gay/lesbian), bisexual, asexual, and pansexual

Question 11

How is sexuality understood?

Answer 11

Sexuality is diverse and can be fluid, meaning it may change over time

Cultural and societal norms play a significant role in shaping how sexuality is understood and expressed

Question 12

What is sexual development?

Answer 12

Childhood (0-12): Body awareness, gender role exploration, early understanding of relationships.
Adolescence (13-19): Puberty, sexual identity formation, early romantic experiences
Adulthood (20+): Continued exploration, intimacy & relationship development, lifelong learning about sexual health & expression

Question 13

When does sexual orientation emerge?

Answer 13

Sexual orientation typically emerges between middle childhood and early adolescence

Question 14

What is the UK 2021 census of sexuality?

Answer 14

89.4% of the general population identify as heterosexual
90.3.2% of the population aged 16 and over identified as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or another sexual orientation (LGB+).

1.5% identify as gay or lesbian
1.3% identify as bisexual
0.3% identify as another sexual orientation

Question 15

What did Weir et al., 2021 find?

Sexuality & Autism

Answer 15

Anonymous, self-report survey
1,183 autistic and 1,203 non-autistic adolescents and adults (aged 16-90 years)
8 x more likely to identify as asexual and ‘other’ sexuality than their non-autistic peers

Sex differences in sexual orientation:
-autistic men are 3.5 times more likely to identify as bisexual than non-autistic men
-autistic women are 3 times more likely to identify as homosexual than non-autistic women

Question 16

What does research on ADHD and Sexuality suggest?

Answer 16

Research suggests that women with ADHD are more likely to have had homosexual experiences (Young & Cocallis, 2023)

However, generally, individuals with ADHD do not differ from neurotypical peers in their self-reported sexual orientation BUT the potential to show more hypersexual behaviours (Hertz et al., 2023; Soldati et al., 2021)

Question 17

How do features of ADHD link with sexuality?

Answer 17

Impulsivity: Risky sexual behaviour
Dopamine: Sensation seeking & Rewards seeking
Inattention: Distractibility & Difficulty focusing
Sensory sensitives: Discomfort & Repelled

Question 18

What are the basics of Gender?

Answer 18

sex vs gender

Question 19

What’s the definition of sex?

Answer 19

typically refers to biological attributes, such as chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy

Question 20

What’s Gender?

Answer 20

is largely understood as a social construct:

Involves the norms and expectations that societies create around what it means to be a “man,” “woman,” or other gender identities

These norms vary across cultures and change over time

Question 21

What are Kohlberg’s stages of gender?

Answer 21

Stage 1 (2-3 years): Gender Identity based on appearance.
Stage 2 (4-5 years): Gender Stability over time, still appearance-based.
Stage 3 (6-7 years): Gender Constancy across changes.

Question 22

What is the biological factors of gender?

Answer 22

Hormones (androgens) influence development. Intersex conditions and transgender/twin studies are relevant.

Question 23

What is the social cognitive theory?

Answer 23

Gender development involves personal, environmental, and behavioral factors.

Question 24

What is the Gender similarity hypothesis?

Answer 24

Genders are more alike than different in most variables

Question 25

What behaviours are in line with gender?

Answer 25

Gender-typing and gender expression are the processes by which adopt observable behaviours in line with our construction of gender.

Question 26

What does gender-typed preferences and behaviour results ?

Answer 26

result from the combined influence of biological, psychological, and sociocultural processes (Leaper, 2013) - i.e., biopsychosocial model.

Question 27

What is gender identity?

Answer 27

Gender identity is an individual's internal sense of their own gender It's a deeply personal experience that may or may not align with the sex they were assigned at birth Gender identity exists on a spectrum, and people may identify as male, female, non-binary, or other gender identities

Question 28

What's Gender diversity?

Answer 28

experiencing of aspects of your gender as different from your assigned sex at birth. Gender diversity can result in gender incongruence where a person’s gender identity differs from their sex assigned at birth

Question 29

What are the stats on gender diversity?

Answer 29

Survey-based research estimates that as many as 1% to 2% of adolescents identify as gender diverse (i.e. gender nonconforming or transgender; Rider et al., 2018) In the 2021 UK Census 0.5% of the general population indicated that their gender identity differed to their sex registered at birth

Question 30

What's gender dysphoria?

Answer 30

People may experience discomfort or distress when their assigned sex is different from the gender they identify with

Question 31

How does gender dysphoria affect physial interventions for trans people?

Answer 31

In the UK, transgender people must be assessed for gender dysphoria before physical interventions such as gender affirming hormones and surgery can be accessed on the NHS. NB. Not all trans people have dysphoria

Question 32

What is the DSM-5-TR for children?

Answer 32

A marked incongruence between one’s experienced/expressed gender and assigned gender, lasting at least 6 months, as manifested by at least six of the following (one of which must be the first criterion): * A strong desire to be of the other gender or an insistence that one is the other gender (or some alternative gender different from one’s assigned gender) * In boys (assigned gender), a strong preference for cross-dressing or simulating female attire; or in girls (assigned gender), a strong preference for wearing only typical masculine clothing and a strong resistance to the wearing of typical feminine clothing * A strong preference for cross-gender roles in make-believe play or fantasy play * A strong preference for the toys, games or activities stereotypically used or engaged in by the other gender * A strong preference for playmates of the other gender * In boys (assigned gender), a strong rejection of typically masculine toys, games, and activities and a strong avoidance of rough-and-tumble play; or in girls (assigned gender), a strong rejection of typically feminine toys, games, and activities * A strong dislike of one’s sexual anatomy * A strong desire for the physical sex characteristics that match one’s experienced gender

Question 33

What is the DSM-5-TR for adolescents and adults?

Answer 33

A marked incongruence between one’s experienced/expressed gender and their assigned gender, lasting at least 6 months, as manifested by at least two of the following: * A marked incongruence between one’s experienced/expressed gender and primary and/or secondary sex characteristics (or in young adolescents, the anticipated secondary sex characteristics) * A strong desire to be rid of one’s primary and/or secondary sex characteristics because of a marked incongruence with one’s experienced/expressed gender (or in young adolescents, a desire to prevent the development of the anticipated secondary sex characteristics) * A strong desire for the primary and/or secondary sex characteristics of the other gender * A strong desire to be of the other gender (or some alternative gender different from one’s assigned gender) * A strong desire to be treated as the other gender (or some alternative gender different from one’s assigned gender) * A strong conviction that one has the typical feelings and reactions of the other gender (or some alternative gender different from one’s assigned gender)

Question 34

What study investigated autism and gender diversity?

Answer 34

1st systematic study (Vries et al.,2010): Investigated the incidence of autism in children and adolescents referred for gender diversity services -7.8% of the sample met strict diagnostic criteria for autism - 10 x higher than the prevalence of autism in the general population at that time -Strang et al., (2018): Identified studies of gender diverse and transgender youth that included only clinical autism diagnoses or autism diagnosed through comprehensive methods -In all 7 available studies rates of clinical diagnoses were significantly greater compared to the general population

Question 35

What are gender diversity research with autistic hdilren typically relied on?

Answer 35

parent report based on a single question. Used the Gender Diversity Screening Questionnaire (Self-Report and Parent-Report) Two domains: Binary Gender Diversity and Nonbinary Gender Diversity

Question 36

What did Corbett et al. 2023 find?

Answer 36

Self-report: Autistic children showed higher Gender Diversity (both binary and non-binary) than neurotypical children. Parent-report: A significant difference in gender diversity between the groups on body incongruence Underscores “the need to better understand and support the unique and complex needs of autistic children who experience gender diversity.”

Question 37

Where is there a lack of research in gender diversity and neurodiversity?

Answer 37

Very limited, few studies specifically look at ADHD Warrier et al., 2020 – Transgender & Gender diverse individuals had elevated rates of ADHD Prevalence rate of 8.3% in children and adolescents referred for gender care (Holt et al., 2016) Prevalence rate of 4.3% in TGD adults (Cheung et al., 2018).

Question 38

What did Ignatova et al., 2025?

Answer 38

Longitudinal Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study (US) Methods: are you transgender (yes, no or maybe) gender diverse individuals showed higher levels of ADHD trait. Results reduced when controlling for stress: authors linked to current climate in the US. Discussion: What are some potential criticisms of this study? Limited questions, very binary, not good.

Question 39

What research used lived experience for autism and transgender? | Cooper et al. 2022

Answer 39

Semi-structured intervention: all PTT identified as transgender and/or Non-binary Main Findings: Distress due to their bodies not matching their gender identites, while managing complex intersecting needs. Societal acceptance of gender and neurodviersty: Barriers in accessing healthcare for their gender needs. Tension between need to undergo a physical gender transition vs a need for sameness and routine.

Question 40

What are quotes of positive experience (Cooper et al. 2022)?

Answer 40

“We see the world differently” (Participant 22), referring to the idea that being autistic allows one to step outside of societal norms and follow your own path “I have never tried to fit in with people, or very rarely. So whilst now my gender presentation is very stereotypically male, there are some things that I do are intentionally more feminine, but I don't care” (Participant 12) “Then after having a [autism] diagnosis a lot more of my experiences have come to light again and there's things that I do actually make me really uncomfortable or things that really don't suit me that I have edited to ignore a long time ago.” (Participant 17), found the diagnosis comforting and this allowed new coping strategies to be implemented

Question 41

What is DSM-V-TR Autism?

Answer 41

“Hyper- or hyporeactivity to sensory input or unusual interests in sensory aspects of the environment (e.g., apparent indifference to pain/temperature, adverse response to specific sounds or textures, excessive smelling or touching of objects, visual fascination with lights or movement)”

Question 42

How is dysphoria and sensory sensitivities linked? | Cooper et al. 2022

Answer 42

Some participants described ‘sensory dysphoria’: distress linked to sensory experiences. -Wearing uncomfortable fabrics and shapes associated with girls’ clothes -Sensory challenges of puberty including periods, and growing facial hair ‘I was stuck between having really bad gender dysphoria not wearing a binder or feeling really uncomfortable sensory wise.’

Question 43

Why?

Answer 43

Biological explanations Increased Self-identification Cognitive & Sensory Differences

Question 44

What are the biological theories?

Answer 44

Prenatal hormone exposure Brain structure and function

Question 45

What is prenatal hormone exposure?

Answer 45

Variations in prenatal hormone exposure could contribute to differences in how individuals perceive and experience gender not a simple cause-and-effect relationship

Question 46

What are brain structure and function theory?

Answer 46

Differences in structure and function could influence how individuals process and internalise social constructs like gender Differences in brain regions involved in social cognition and self-perception might play a role

Question 47

What is increased self-identification?

Answer 47

Autistic individuals may be less influenced by societal norms and expectations surrounding gender & sexuality Leading to a greater likelihood of expressing their authentic gender or sexual identities, even if it deviates from societal norms In other words, they may be less likely to suppress or conform to traditional gender roles or sexual identities due to social pressures

Question 48

What are Differences in Social Cognition & Sensory Processing?

Answer 48

Systemising and pattern recognition Intense focus and special norms sensory sensitivies/sensation seeking

Question 49

What is meant by systemising nad pattern recognition?

Answer 49

a more analytical approach to gender, breaking down its components and questioning traditional norms

Question 50

What is meant by intense focus and special interest?

Answer 50

Increased depth, leading to a more profound understanding of their own identity & less influence from outside sources

Question 51

What is meant by Sensory sensitivities/sensation seeking?

Answer 51

Certain clothing textures or social environments associated with specific genders might be intensely uncomfortable Preference 4 certain gendered presentations due to sensory input itprovides

Question 52

What is a limitation in the research of gender identity, sexuality and down syndrome?

Answer 52

Limited to no studies investigating gender diversity in Down Syndrome: -Parent-report regarding more general views of sexuality in DS -No studies directly speaking to individuals with DS Studies focus on the need for and improvement of sex ed 4individuals with DS

Question 53

What does WHO advocate for?

Answer 53

SE as a human right, but adolescent and young adults with intellectual or developmental disabilities are frequently excluded

Question 54

What does SE in down syndrome focus on?

Answer 54

Often focuses on safety and abuse prevention rather than a holistic approach - healthy relationships, consent, and sexual fulfilment Need to work with these individuals to develop implement more accessible and effective SE programs

Question 55

What research did Schmidt et al. 2021 do?

Answer 55

Improving the accessibility of sexuality education (SE) for individuals with intellectual or developmental disabilities. Qualitative data collection through interviews and focus groups (Individuals, parents, healthcare providers, and educators.) Modalities: Educational guides, Visuals, Videos, Universal Design for Learning and Direct, explicit instructions Settings: One-to-one, Small groups and Combination Additional: Role-playing & modelling, Open communication and Importance of parental support and education

Question 56

What did Cooper et al. 2022 find?

Answer 56

Findings suggest that some autistic people w/gender dysphoria have longer and more complex journeys to come to understand their sense of self & identity, beyond gender identity alone. Autistic people are more likely to be transgender. Autistic people interviewed generally experienced negative emotions, including depression and anger, which were related to gender dysphoria and similar to the emotions reported by the broader community of those who experience gender dysphoria (Cooper et al, 2020)