PSY260 - 11. Observation Learning

Question 1

Why is language special?

Answer 1

we learn details of languages + multiple languages

Question 2

Imitation

Answer 2

modify behaviour through seeing other people perform it well
see yourself perform it well/imagine doing it well

Question 3

Emulation

Answer 3

not necessarily reproducing same sounds, but same result - rock bands

Question 4

Contagion

Answer 4

reacting similarly to emotions of conspecifics

crying, laughing - share emotional context

Question 5

Observational conditioning

Answer 5

learning an emotional response by observing it in others

Question 6

Stimulus enhancement

Answer 6

producing a similar response by directing attention to the stimulus

Question 7

Is language acquisition a specific type of learning, and is it unique to human beings?

Answer 7

don’t know what ways animals are communicating with one another
differences in that communication with language
believed it’s a human trait

Question 8

Definition of language

Answer 8

way humans communicate

Question 9

Purpose of language

Answer 9

to communicate, express feelings + ideas

Question 10

Methods of communication

Answer 10

can communicate with body language + facial expressions

verbal expression

Question 11

How does language relate to learning?

Answer 11

Actions required for performance can be observed
Observation leads to motor movements + somatic responses
Responses trigger emotional reactions, somatic response in observer

Question 12

How does language relate to learning?

Answer 12

Emotional reactions directed motor actions
Actions are evaluated based on success
Symbolic representation of the learning process: symbolic type of communication - lower risk - learn without going into situation

Question 13

MIRROR NEURONS

Answer 13

Neurons that activate both during execution of action + during observation same action made by another indiv
neurons in premotor cortex recorded during monkey observation
reaching + grasping, + experimenter reaching + putting object back both activated the mirror neuron

Question 14

MIRROR NEURONS

Answer 14

Subcategories: neurons activate when listening to action sounds, and/or when observing communicative gestures made by others respectively.
mirror neurons - recent

Question 15

Frequency Graph

Answer 15

fires frequently when researcher/monkey reaches for object

Question 16

ORIGINS: 1. Evolution

Answer 16

mirror neurons might be precursors of neural systems concerned with language, or a gestural origin of language
speech risen from need to communicate with gestures

Question 17

ORIGINS: 2. Functional

Answer 17

mirror neurons help to common code, parity, betw observer + actor (sender + receiver of a message) [motor theory of speech - phonetic gestures rather than speech sounds]
speech as a surrogate for phonetic gesture
phonemes are small gestures of speech

Question 18

Cortical Speech Areas - Brocha’s Area

Answer 18

-controls motor output

lights up when speech is not required

Question 19

Cortical Speech Areas - Werniche Area

Answer 19

anatomically, mirror cells located in areas linked to speech production

Question 20

Mirror Neurons

Answer 20

monkey has learned to imitate

mirror neuron is switched on, same neuron activates when monkey does action

Question 21

Facial Expression

Answer 21

pay attention to facial expression + mirror cells respond strongly to different types of expression
correlation between autism + impairment of activation of this area

Question 22

Points of View

Answer 22

From hunter’s view, both scenes have same perspective
From learner’s perspective, scenes moving in opposite directions
allows us to manipulate this observation
generalization exercise - how to capture prey
not a discrimination exercise - doesn’t matter on details

Question 23

Song learning in birds

Answer 23

oral observations
different strategies in learning
sparrow - 2 years to learn: sensitive periods where they listen
sounds help develop birds sensory abilities, less models to drive sensory development, produces subsong - practice its own sound
then modifies song to sound like others to communicate

Question 24

Songbirds

Answer 24

program for producing diff sounds
image of sound retained in the brain + performance is compared to this
important in fine tuning sound
discriminates its own sound production + a neighbour
starts to modify production based on neighbouring birds
sound becomes fine tuned to mimic neighbours sound to attract mate

Question 25

Songbirds

Answer 25

similar organization of the brain dopaminergic motor program drives the neurons that produces sounds feedback system that tells bird how well it’s doing

Question 26

Mimi Ted Talk

Answer 26

learn skill through trial + error language is learned through imitation listen + memorize adult songs - practice song starts with babbling - variable sounds starts breaking it into chunks - starts to master skill song system - motor pathway + cortical basal ganglia circuit

Question 27

Mimi Ted Talk

Answer 27

circuit specialized for singing - song learning + plasticity damaged while learning - learning stops - cant manipulate longer adult damage - can’t change song cells have characteristic pattern of activity singing by himself - more variability in activity

Question 28

Mimi Ted Talk

Answer 28

neuron never bursts singing to female neuron firing changes during alternation of social contexts lots of variability in pitch, singing to female - cleans up act activity variable = song variable lesioned - sings as if singing to female all the time active circuit that produces variability on purpose brain can turn off variability depending on context - need to perform accurately

Question 29

Consonants

Answer 29

we discriminate amongst phonemes + categorize sounds | find that new sounds are not readily recognized by brain + get categorized into one of known sounds

Question 30

Phoneme Classification

Answer 30

categorize sounds into meaningful sequences | inhibit responses to sounds that have no meaning

Question 31

Formants

Answer 31

common english phonemes | slight changes in frequency

Question 32

Auditory Discrimination and Language Learning Impairement

Answer 32

discriminates between first 20 milliseconds | errors - unable to quickly categorize one phoneme to another

Question 33

Auditory Discrimination and Language Learning Impairement

Answer 33

can train children computer generated sounds sound sweeps up or sweeps down early on had difficulties but with practice mastered discrimination brain categorizes sounds phonemes have multiple frequencies focusing on certain frequencies

Question 34

Development of episodic and semantic memory

Answer 34

Elicited imitation: infants shown in action + tested for ability to mimic action later Imitation important way youngsters learn about world Episodic memory develop more slowly

Question 35

Development of episodic and semantic memory

Answer 35

Capacity to encode and verbally express semantic info increase with age across childhood hippocampus + prefrontal cortex, critical for encoding and recall of episodic memories immature at birth + continue to develop during the first few years of life

Question 36

Development of episodic and semantic memory

Answer 36

Young children do not show evidence of cognitive self | Some argue very young children can form episodic memories but cannot verbally express them

Question 37

Language learning

Answer 37

language learning has sensitive period ends at about 12/earlier Lack of social interactions during development greatly reduce opportunities to observe + imitate

Question 38

Language learning

Answer 38

Children can learn second language more easily + approximate native accent more closely than adults Infants younger than 6-8 months can distinguish all sounds even when distinction does not exist in native language

Question 39

Language learning

Answer 39

acquiring language have window of opportunity to learn to distinguish language sounds; after, Learning possible, but much less effective In children, dominant process is social imitation: children learn to make speech around them

Question 40

Language learning

Answer 40

adults dominant process + semantic memory – adopting explicit strategies such as memorization of new vocabulary

Question 41

Pruning of synapses

Answer 41

begins with surplus of synopsis Creation of new synapsis - synaptogenesis begins 5 months after conception 40,000 synopsis being created per second occurs at different rates in different brain areas

Question 42

Pruning of synapses

Answer 42

prefrontal cortex high rates of synaptogenesis continue until about 6 seldom used may be weakened + may die away up to 42% of all synapses in cortex may be pruned during childhood + adolescence

Question 43

Pruning of synapses

Answer 43

occur mostly on spines, tiny protrusions from dendrites | If spines contacted by another neuron, synopsis can be formed + strengthened, unneeded spines disappear to be replaced

Question 44

Pruning of synapses

Answer 44

overall # of spines on dendrite remains approximately constant; experience + learning determine which individual spines survive

Question 45

adulthood to old age: Localized neuron and synapse loss

Answer 45

``` Loss of neurons in prefrontal cortex, area importance of working memory - declines with age Neurons lost in cerebellum # of spines in prefrontal neurons decreases - 33% overall Hippocampus doesn’t show much age related neuron loss ```

Question 46

Early overproduction of neurons

Answer 46

When neuron is deprived of neurotrophic factors, genes become active that cause the neuron to die Apoptosis: natural cell death

Question 47

Early overproduction of neurons

Answer 47

During childhood, apoptosis, prune as many as one third of all neurons produced prenatally Brain starts off with plenty of resources + experience determines which of those resources are critical and which not so necessary