PSY311 Midterm 1 Flashcards

Question

Integrative approach to psychopathology , 1. Biological: genetics and neuroscience what are gene? What are the nature of genes? and its chromosomes? Genome: dominant genes vs recessive genes, development/behavior: polygenic Epigenome

Answer 1

Genes Molecular hereditary unit of a living organism DNA molecules at various locations on chromosomes within cell nucleus ``` Nature of genes 23 pairs of chromosomes (total of 46) 1 from mother and 1 from father 22 pairs determine body/brain development = autosomes 23rd pair = sex chromosomes Female (both X chromosomes) Male (X and Y chromosomes) ``` dominant genes vs recessive genes : think of hair color, dimples or eyes color Epigenome: think about the experimentation with the rat (nurture vs nature)

Answer 2

Monozygotic: 100% same genes Dizygotics twins: 50% of genes Concordance rates MZ> DZ twins: G effect if 1 twin has schizophrenia, there is 50% chance the other one too Adoption: Disentangling G effects from Eeffects + correlation inspecific behavior between adopted child and his/her biological parents: Geffect Family studies Degree of genetic overlap over family members - degree of similarity in a behavior: Genetic relation incrwase - similarity in behavior increase

Answer 3

Genes and psychological disorders 1. Specific genes might be linked to psychological disorders: More likely that many genes contribute 2. Cannot study genetic contributions without environment Diathesis-Stress model Inherited tendencies, from multiple genes, to express certain traits or behaviors (G) These tendencies may be activated under conditions of stress (E)à Le modèle diathèse–stress est une théorie psychologique tentant d'expliquer certains comportements humains par la conjonction d'une vulnérabilité héréditaire et de stress important issu d'expériences vécues

Answer 4

aim: examine whether serotonin transporter gene predicts depression conclusion: individual'S response to environment is moderated by genetic makeup It was a longitudinal study, 3 genotype always 2: one for the woman and the other from the man People were separated into 3 gps = significant difference between LL and SS it is not a guarantee to develop a mood disorder. So the participants were exposed to stress (what’s going on with the caregiver) no treatment to severe maltreatment (various= verbal, physical, sexual - but not highly reported) No much difference between LL and SL since it is below the 50% SS: 2 short alleles SL: one short alleles one long allele LL:two long alleles - gene is coding quite well for the NT (the serotonin aka mood, sleep, appetite that affect depressif) activity.

Answer 5

Genetics correlate with environmental exposure, making an individual more likely to choose a certain environment - your genes make you more likely to experience certain stressors and possibly develop certain disorders E.g. Parents with history of antisocial (manipulating, drug use,unable to relate to others in a healthy way) behavior (G) and resulting negative family dynamic (E) → the child internalize = ↑ likelihood for deviant peer affiliation (E) → ↑ risk to develop antisocial behaviors

Answer 6

Changes in organisms caused by modification of gene expression (vs. genetic code itself) Under environmental influences Micheal Janani: genetic, above the genetic. Genetic effect does not explain everything. Once we are born with a genre, it stays within us all our lives… nature vs nurture We have these radicals circulating in our body, but there some genes are more expressed than others. This pattern develops before we are born but also early in life; this is why our life experiences matter a lot. they will influence whether a mental group attaches to the genes or not depending on the molecules. These patterns of gene expression develop early one but some continue to develop during our life span. epigenetic profile is much more sensitive to the environment

Answer 7

Brain and spinal cord (neurons send messages to and from the brain) Processes information received from senses Soma- DNA dendrite getting the NT re-uptake and know how it works Limbic system Relay information between cerebrum and lower brain parts Regulate emotional and physiological reactions Part of the forebrain amygala: emotion reactivity hippocampus: memory conversion, ex if i see a danger next time I’ll react quickly hypothalamus: balance. thalamus: relay on information

Answer 8

Cerebral cortex 80% of neurons of CNS - Most evolved “human qualities” e.g. plan, reason) -2 hemispheres (4 lobes each) frontal lobe: located in from of the brain: reasoning, long term planning Purple: receive information from the other lobe, including frontal lobe, and generate movement within the body temporal lobe: language skill. Hippocampus is located deep inside of it. memory. primary auditory cortex: sounds and language occipital lobe: vision information, color, objects.. parietal lobe: somato-sensitive.

Answer 9

2 components 1. Somatic nervous system Sensory + motor nervous systems Communicates with sense organs and voluntary muscles 2. Autonomic nervous system Sympathetic + parasympathetic nervous systems Regulates cardiovascular system, endocrine system, etc.

Answer 10

Endocrine system Endocrine system produce hormones - Released in bloodstream Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA-) axis stress release system situated on top of kidneys which help respond to the stress travel through bloodstream

Answer 11

Send messages between neurons in the brain Rarely is one neurotransmitter responsible for a psychological disorder, travel through neuron cell GABA: major inhibitory NT, it decreases our emotional reactivity and lower our arousal Serotonin: regulation of various behavior, mood, appetite, sex drive Dopamine: regulation behavior but mostly in interest, motivation drive linked to addiction. think of cocaine which stimulates it alot often all work together

Answer 12

``` Social learning Albert Bandura, Canadian psychologist (1925-) – Modeling or observational learning Bobo doll studies - Exposure to aggressivity + reward (vs. punished) ~ ↑ likely to be aggressive Rules of “social learning” according to Bandura: Notice/observe the model’s behavior Remember the model’s behavior Exhibit the model’s behavior Motivations also important - Reward vs. punishmen ```

Answer 13

Prepared learning Innate preparedness to acquire insight We learn to fear some objects more easily By default it is an evolutionary purpose: E.g. bad food, snakes and spiders over rocks and flowers Learned helplessness Martin Seligman, American researcher in psychology (1942-) Animals encounter situations they cannot control. E.g. if “no control” over foot shock → helpless behavior. People are similar: If stress perceived as uncontrollable if encountering something you feel you have no control over it you might have a ‘’I give up’’ attitude ``` Émotions Role in the development of psychopathology Emotions may define certain disorders E.g. sadness and depressive disorders E.g. fear and anxiety disorders ```

Answer 14

1. Early deprivation 2. Inadequate parenting styles: can lead to resilience 3. Marital discord: chronic conflict between the romantic partners which affect the child 4. Maladaptive peer relationships: social rejection, bullying, lLow socioeconomic conditions: teen pregnancy, poverty, low education All of this are interdependent Also, prejudice, discrimination, homelessness Number and frequency of social contacts, the quality of the interaction = greater life expectancy Social relationships “protect” against disorders: E.g. social support important for those mourning after spouse passes away Problem of social stigma:

Answer 15

Experiences during certain times may influence vulnerability Sensitive periods: puberty, increased change of mood disorder

Answer 16

Clinical assessment: Evaluating biological, psychological, and social factors in the individual presenting possible psychological disorders Diagnosis: Determining whether the individual meet all the criteria for a disorder Why are they important? To classify individuals with the same problem To determine the best treatment To conduct research on development of disorders and treatment outcomes

Answer 17

Reliability validity standarization

Answer 18

Reliability Degree to which a measurement is consistent Sensitivity and specificity Sensitivity refers to the extent to which there is a degree of agreement that the diagnosis is present. You want sensitivity and specificity to agree with each other. They are correlated Kappa or r : measuring degree of consistency over and above chance levels interrater reliability: two cliniscien using the same techniques = need to have the same result

Answer 19

Degree to which technique is accurate E.g. concurrent validity, predictive validity (will it happen in the future?), internal validity (drugs, manipulated variables…), external validity (applies outside of your study, did you study the rest of your population? can u generalize?) every aspect has pros and cons

Answer 20

Standards/norms determined for a given test | for scoring, protocol for a technique to make sure that everything is consistent

Answer 21

Some behaviors, thoughts or emotions may be due to medical condition or medication → physical exam to rule out these causes not every symptom is related to mental health issues but can be related to physical issues E.g. Hypothyroidism and depression

Answer 22

Clinical interviews Behavioral assessments Psychological testing

Answer 23

linical interview – Mental status exam Systematic observation of individual’s behavior External appearance and behavior: E.g. psychomotor retardation/agitation. is the client seem agitated? Thought processes: E.g. pressured speech (very fast), delusions of grandeur/persecution. What is the patient saying? what’s the flow? slow/fast? make sense? Mood: E.g. depressed/expansive mood Intellectual functioning: E.g. vocabulary, memory Sensorium: Orientation x 3 (time, place and identity): checking for their awareness time: what is the day? month? Place: where are you? Identity: who are you? what’s your name? (+ life history, + social/cultural factors) you might one to look at that also All of that is very fast… Clinical interview Face-to-face verbal goal-directed (assessing the individual) exchange around 1-2 hours Unstructured interviews (it has been long for a loonnng time) speak about whatever you want Structured interview: specific set of questions (less popular today) you want the patient to answer yes/no to the questions… no flexibility. Semi-structured interview: most popular. The idea is a balance of the two. you have a set of questions, a protocol, but there is room to talk in detail about what the patient is trying to tell you.

Answer 24

Naturalistic observation, observed in a natural setting:ex, sit away in a room and observe behavior…it gives you so much data (pro) but it is really long (con). E.g. Aggressive preschooler Controlled observation. You invite the individual to your lab, office and you will create the environment to see the behavior that you want to see. You control the environment, which is a big pro. A con: the presence of an observer + an unnatural environment : E.g. Stranger anxiety/paradigm Rating scales: E.g. Observer- or self-reports Con: might ask a third person to filled out observer self-report because the person in question is too young to answer Self-monitoring: E.g. Diary, beeper con: takes time pro: less is forgetting and can be structered

Answer 25

Projective testing People extend their unconscious fears and personality onto ambiguous stimuli E.g. Rorschach inkblot & Thematic apperception tests: ask the person what they see. They will eventually tell you about themselves within their answers. ex. someone say it is sexual, then the researcher will dig into that. - they look at disorder thinking and later schizophrenia. but it remains subjective… it is an old one

Answer 26

MMPI-2 E.g. “ I usually feel that life is worthwhile and interesting” - If “False”: symptom of depression “I seem to hear things that other people cannot hear” - If “True”: symptom of schizophrenia can’t confirm a disorder with that… you should used different assessments to see the presence of a disorder - Intelligence testing Intelligence Quotient (army, school) E.g. Stanford-Binet Intelligence test, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. Created at first for children, and if their IQ could predict school performance… ex. how much does my score deviate from others, the average? Not very used today

Answer 27

Major disadvantage… it does not take into consideration culture and demographic, how to you define intelligence (it is a construct) different types of intelligence are not considered. They might be used a lot but each has disadvantage too. you don’t rely on ONE single thing.

Answer 28

E.g. Luria Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery, Halstead-Reitan Battery Reflecting the presence of neural dysfunction, lesion issues with confounders: performance anxiety, mood change, family condition, drugs intake, etc. the reasoning seems affected = the only thing you can really say after looking at the result of a patient

Answer 29

you ask people to draw a line between each, 1 to 2 to 3 to 4… same thing but with numbers and letters. 1-a-2-b-3-c, etc. see if there is a problem with the frontral lobe

Answer 30

Impaired performance ~ ↑ risk of dementia, following with their age capacity with time: their answer did not increase, it is important to not rely on 1 thing …can you really say someone has dementia based on that? Nop. the frontal lobe is particularly involved

Answer 31

computerized Axial Tomography (CAT scan) X-rays in the brain Relatively inexpensive low(er) spatial resolution

Answer 32

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Brain molecules excited with magnetic field -> relaxation signal emitted expensive high(er) spatial resolution high strength magnetic field that will be generated: through this field, these radio signals will be transmitted after they go back to their related state, these signals will relaxe, and these tissues, depending on where they are in the brain, have different time to relax. it gives you an idea of the brain: is it healthy or not? in case of a lesion, the region might be much darker compared to a healthy brain for instance. something you might see in schizophrenia

Answer 33

Low(er) spatial resolution injected (the only one who does it) with tracer substance -> active brain parts ‘’light up’’ very mildly retroactive this tracer look at what you want, the substance will change examine effects of drug therapy examine NT - or psychopathology-related activity

Answer 34

_normal Right_ schizophrenia patient a study shows that schizophrenia patient would perform worse then healthy individualsnot only look at the structure but now at the functionlike ask patient to close their eyes, or do a taskdon’t only see one lobe, but see the whole picture, every aspect don’T inject anything in this one To finish on the neuroimaging_helps to understand neurobiological causes of psychological disordersallows examining neurobiological changes in response to drugs or psychotherapy helps to see gray matter, white matters, etc. spinal fluids etc

Answer 35

measurable changes in the nervous system reflecting psychological processes Electroencephalogram (EEG) - not at the exam. electros on the scalp… first graph vs second (ptsd). PTSD: more sensitive to stimuli Another type: electrocardiogram, electrodermal responses, neurochemical assessment -metabolites (urine sample) ``` NS Meausrable changes in NS reflect the psychological processes - Electrocardiogram - electrodermal responses - neurochemical assment: métabolite ```

Answer 36

Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926), German psychiatrist All disorders only have one causal factor Specific set of criteria must be met: useful in medicine he came up with categories for mental health disorder based on their clinical profile Classification: Nosology: applying a taxonomic system to psychological or medical phenomena, be able to distinguish between mental and physical disorder based on categories Nomenclature: labels for disorders it is much very relevant

Answer 37

Thomas Szasz - ‘’Myth of Mental Illness’’ book Criticized pseudoscientific psychiatry argued that there is no physiological basis of mental illness for verifying DSM diagnoses best known as social critic of the moral psychiatry father of modern psychiatry because of his idea of it is much relevant: we do name disorder, we do make sure the clinical file is as clear as possible he saw the social control over psychiatry, he argued that mental illness is no more fact… or a possession of the devil. In his book: nurse= keeper of a prison, we should do something about it. Hospitalization is not a way to protect society. there are no test to prove that there is a mental illness… but for physic disease he is not against psychiatry George Albee Argued that DSM-related ‘’medical model’’ should not be used 1988 to … Emphasized societal factors as major determinants social factor: child abuse, job, childhood, racism, etc. needs to focus on prevention and not treatment

Answer 38

Instruments: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th edition (DSM-5)v - used in North america International Classification of Diseases and Health Related Problems, 10th edition (ICD-10) - used in european continent 1 instrument like a bible to psychiatr

Answer 39

First DSM 1952: unreliable expert opinion Second DSM 1968 (more mental health disorder added but nothing different) (ALSO FORGOTTEN) DSM-III 1980: introducing multiaxial (multiple axes) classification system: 1. Major health disorder (mood, anxiety) 2. Rare one, personality disorder 3. Medical history of the individual, health issue 4. social environmental factors DSM-IV 1994: Dr Allen Frances’ group task force: as we are expanding the boundaries of psychiatry, we have this constant inflation (more and more mental health disorder). if you over diagnosis= risk of over treatment too. he suggests revising dsm in an old-conservative fashion, we do look at the social aspect (not a lot but still). ADHD: easily triple, with the drug marketing/advertiser. pharmacien convince psychiatrist… that’s why the revision too ! Recognize change in society… DSM-5 2013: eliminating multiaxial classification system. after the revision.. Product of APA 2013 DSM-5

Answer 40

Early editions (prior to DSM-III) Unreliable Many diagnostic disagreements information provided to make diagnoses depended on what an individual clinician might choose to ask about Newer editions of DSM More extensive descriptions More precise diagnostic criteria Increased use of standardized diagnostic interviews has improved reliability by providing same detailed information More objective How is it a good thing to put a child on drugs when he is young? but can it degenerate? That is still a debate

Answer 41

Update criteria based on research knowledge reduce the number of not otherwise specified (NOS) classification: not every cases fit in those classification (like type 1,2,3 for bipolar disorder) if it does not fit? the issue is if you put someone there, what do you proceed afterwards? conducting more research, conducting behavior, etc. remove multiaxial classification approach changes in disorders (adding new disorder) e.g., new-binge eating disorder asperger's syndrome, autism combined into Autism Spectrum Disorders (reclassified) before DSM 3 = very categorical: either healthy or ill. Today: it is more on the continuum. Adding dimension to it! Mild, moderate or severe … no more: yes/no. ex mood disorder. bipolar vs depression a scale in between

Answer 42

Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder criticized as ‘’temper tantrum disorder’’ still debated… DMDD how to distingish between normal vs the disorder with age Bereavement no longer excludes Major Depressive Disorder: ex. Before someone grieving someone else was not diagnosed with this, you would wait to see if the symptoms are persistent then yes. How long do you wait? Maybe the grieving is just highlighting other symtoms of it… Now, if the person is grieving AND has symptoms: they will be diagnosed with the Major Depressive Disorder right away. What would be the issue with that? - stigmatize. Not much drug for personality disorder… so they would give drugs for mood disorders to them. You try to combine treatment: drug and therapy! Why does it fit the criteria… Maybe it is just a ‘’phase’’ of grieving.

Answer 43

’Fuzzy categories that blur around the edges’’ comorbidity (mood and anxiety disorder are highly comorbid, bipolar, etc.) more difficult to treat more difficult to measure response to treatment

Answer 44

Categorical classification If need to know if person either has or does not have disorder (but too “black or white”) If need to know whether to start or not start certain treatment Dimensional classification Tends to have less comorbidity since measures are on a continuum (important) Consider levels/dimensions of a disorder (but how many are necessary?)

Answer 45

combination of categorical and dimensional (still use categorical! but not only that) identifies certain features of entity for classification + allow for variations e.g., describing a dog: all share certain features, but divided in different breeds Not a perfect approach but an improvement pros and cons Advantages: Defining problems Basis for communication, helps communication between health workers Important for research Important step for treatment Limitations: Requires clinical judgment- but there is still subjectivity in the testing. so use more tests… Must be reliable and valid… but are they? Ethical issues Caution about labeling and stigma Labeling / calling people by their diagnoses E.g., schizos, autistics - Leads to stigma - People uncomfortable talking about mental illness - People less likely to seek treatment

Answer 46

Why is research challenging? - No simple answers - Inaccessibility: thoughts of individuals - Normal vs. abnormal (psychopathology instead of abnormal) Three main types of research questions What causes mental illness? How does it cause mental illness? What treatments are effective?

Answer 47

Hypothesis Educated guess: what the study might find Testability: Need to be precise, make sure it is testable Literature review Research design Used to test a hypothesis Dependent Variable: Behavior/aspect of interest, measured, outcome, treatment group, Independent Variable: - What could influence behavior of interest - Manipulated

Answer 48

Extent to which we are confident that IV causes DV to change ``` - Confound Other variable(s) may explain changes in DV Results difficult to interpret ``` To ensure internal validity - Control group: does not receive treatment, right there you can cancel a confound Similar to experimental group, but not exposed to IV - Randomization Random assignment to a group ex. pills to get approved. You might recruit people that have mild symptoms to get a pill.

Answer 49

How well do results reflect outside world? Generalizability o Extent to which results apply to everyone

Answer 50

Often inversely related: Controlling for all potential confounds vs. Maintaining generalizability

Answer 51

Average: Patient uniformity myth. external validity concerned. 1. tendency to see all participants as a homogenous group 2. individual differences ignored = inaccurate generalizations Today: improved Individual cases Case study method - Study ≥1 individual(s) displaying a behavior intensively → questionable external validity - Confounding variables present → low internal validity. Because many behavior can be within 1 indivudal but not from the disorder that you think... No scientific method Gain any detailed information E.g. Study a feral child who created his/her own language

Answer 52

Correlation - Statistical relation between two variables - Positive and negative correlations - Used to study variables just as they occur study a group need a lit review E.g. Length of relationship ~ similarity in attitudes/opinions? (positive relationship) Correlation ≠ causation +1 is the highest coefficient correlation for positive cannot just say''global, wheter'' need to be precise

Answer 53

Experiment: Manipulating IV and observing its effects on the DV (outcome variable) Answers questions about causality Experimental designs Clinical trials: Used to determine effectiveness and safety of treatment before it goes on the market Randomized Clinical Trials (RCTs): Preferred method (mix cancer patient in placebo (control group) and treatment group (experimental) after do a follow-up -> compare results . you should only have result in the experimental group to see in confidence the causation Control groups - Double-blind control:the patient and the doctor don’t know what group receive what, expect the researcher (theoritical part = know, practice part: don't know) - Compare treatment effects of those who received treatment to those who did not receive treatment at all Placebo effect Frustro effect Nocebo effect

Answer 54

Formalized by B. F. Skinner Helps to better understand individual psychopathology Limitation: Low external validity Advantage: Good internal validity (as opposed to case studies) thanks to repeated measurements repeated measurements DV measured many times Level, variability, degree of change: E.g. treatment & anxiety

Answer 55

Study of incidence, prevalence, and consequence of a particular problem Helps point research in the right direction E.g., Smoking - Lung cancer?

PSY311 Midterm 1 Flashcards

(79 cards)