PSYC Exam (Weeks 12-15) Flashcards
(118 cards)
1
Q
What is language and what is it used for?
A
ubiquitous tool, but its primary form of use is interpersonal communication
2
Q
How can people share new information by using language?
A
levels of language use: lexicon, syntax, speech rate, and accent.
3
Q
What is Audience design?
A
Constructing utterances to suit the audience’s knowledge.
4
Q
What is Common Ground?
A
Information that is shared by people who engage in a conversation.
4
Q
What is Linguistic intergroup bias?
A
People often use abstract language to describe positive aspects of their ingroup, while expressing negative aspects of their outgroups.
5
Q
What is Ingroup?
A
Group to which a person belongs.
6
Q
What is OutGroup?
A
Group to which a person does not belong.
7
Q
What is Lexicon?
A
Words and expressions.
8
Q
What is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?
A
The hypothesis that the language that people use determines their thoughts.
8
Q
What is Priming?
A
A stimulus presented to a person reminds him or her about other ideas associated with the stimulus.
9
Q
What is Situation model?
A
A mental representation of an event, object, or situation is formed when understanding a linguistic description.
10
Q
What is Social brain hypothesis?
A
The hypothesis that the human brain has evolved, so that humans can maintain larger ingroups.
11
Q
What are Social networks?
A
Networks of social relationships among individuals through which information can travel.
12
Q
What is a Syntax?
A
Rules by which words are strung together to form sentences.
12
Q
What is Theory of Mind?
A
The human capacity to comprehend minds comprises concepts like agent and intentionality, as well as processes like goal detection, imitation, empathy, and perspective taking.
i.e Put yourself in someone else’s shoes
13
Q
How do individuals diagnosed with autism differ in their processing of others’ minds.
A
- They struggle with the processing with theory of mind
- Lack automatic processing of people’s information
14
Q
Domains of social life in which theory of mind is critical?
A
- Sharing experiences by expressing the event
- Learning the words of a language
- Teaching new actions or rules
- Figuring out our social standing by guessing what others think and feel about us.
- Collaborating involves signaling shared goals and understanding each other’s intentions to achieve the joint goal.
15
Q
Describe and explain some of the many concepts and processes that comprise the human understanding of minds.
A
- Agents are moving objects that can act independently, with features like self-propulsion, eyes, and systematic reactions to interaction partner’s behavior.
- Goals are a result of agents seeking out, tracking, and physically contacting goal objects.
- Recognizing goals involves observing the predictable relationship between a particular agent pursuing a particular object across various circumstances.
16
Q
Automatic empathy
A
A social perceiver unintentionally assumes another person’s internal state by mimicking their expressive behavior, thereby feeling the expressed emotion.
17
Q
How do ordinary people explain unintentional and intentional behavior.
A
Intentionality is a complex concept, requiring the right beliefs and skill to perform intentional actions, even if unintentional, to achieve a goal.
18
Q
False-belief test
A
An experimental procedure evaluates if a perceiver acknowledges another person’s false belief, which contradicts reality.
19
Q
Visual perspective taking
A
Visual perspective taking involves perceiving something from another person’s spatial vantage point, while effortful mental state inference involves trying to infer thoughts, desires, and emotions.
20
Q
Mimicry
A
Copying others’ behavior, usually without awareness.
i.e copying someones accent
21
Q
Folk explanations of behavior
A
People typically explain others’ behaviors by attributing them to the beliefs and motives of an unobservable mind.
22
Mirror neurons
Monkey brains contain neurons that fire when the monkey performs an action and perceives another agent performing that action.
i.e monkey see monkey do
23
Joint attention
Two people attending to the same object and being aware that they both are attending to it.
24
Projection
A social perceiver’s assumption that the other person wants, knows, or feels the same as the perceiver wants, know, or feels.
25
Intentionality
The quality of an agent's intentional behavior, based on skill, awareness, and intention, is determined by desire and relevant beliefs.
26
Simulation
The process of representing the other person’s mental state.
27
What is the problems with attempting to define categories.
* Not Everything can be place into one category
* They are fuzzy with unclear boundaries
28
What is Typicality?
The study examines the distinction in "goodness" between typical (prototype) and borderline category members.
29
What is Psychological essentialism?
The concept of category membership suggests that individuals within a specific category possess an unobserved attribute that leads to their belonging within the category.
30
What is an Exemplar?
An example in memory that is labeled as being in a particular category.
31
What is Basic-level category?
The neutral, preferred category for a given object, at an intermediate level of specificity.
32
What is a Category?
A set of entities that are equivalent in some way. Usually the items are similar to one another.
33
What is a Concept?
The mental representation of a category.
34
What is the prototype theory?
People have a summary representation of a category, represented by weighted features. This theory explains classification, where typical items have more features, making it easier to match them to the conceptual representation.
35
What is exemplar theory?
we see an object, we unconscious compare it to the exemplars n our memory and judge how similar it is to exemplars in different categories
36
What is the hierarchically organized categories
Superordinate- simple- mammal or fish
37
identify and describe the main areas of cognitive development
Understanding how children's thinking changes so dramatically in just a few years is a fascinating challenge in studying cognitive development.
37
Major theories of cognitive development and what distinguishes them.
* Stage theories - focus on whether children progress through qualitatively different stages of development.
* Sociocultural theories - emphasize how other people and the attitudes, values, and beliefs of the surrounding culture influence children’s development.
* Information processing theories - examine the mental processes that produce thinking at any one time and the transition processes that lead to growth in that thinking.
38
How does nature and nurture work together to produce cognitive development?
Every aspect of development is produced by the interaction of genes and environment.
* Nature and nurture interact to produce cognitive development.
* The way nature and nurture work together can be seen in findings on visual development.
* Children's genes lead to their eliciting different treatment from other people, which influences their cognitive development.
39
What is Sensorimotor Stage?
* Children's thinking is largely realized through their perceptions of the world and their physical interactions.
* Their mental representations are very limited, as seen in Piaget's object permanence task.
39
What is Piaget’s theory on Discontinuous and continuous development?
Theory that development occurs through a sequence of discontinuous stages: the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages.
i.e likes continuous more than discontinous
39
What is Preoperational Stage?
Children can solve simple problems but tend to focus on a single dimension, even when solving problems would require considering multiple dimensions.
40
What is Concrete Operation Stage?
Children overcome this tendency to focus on a single dimension during this stage, but still cannot think in systematic scientific ways.
41
What is Formal Operations Stage?
* Children attain the reasoning power of mature adults, which allows them to solve a wide range of problems.
* This formal operations stage tends to occur without exposure to formal education in scientific reasoning.
42
What are Conservation problems?
Problems pioneered by Piaget in which physical transformation of an object or set of objects changes a perceptually salient dimension but not the quantity that is being asked about.
43
What is Depth perception?
The ability to actively perceive the distance from oneself of objects in the environment.
44
What is Object permanence task?
The Piagetian task is a cognitive exercise where infants, under 9 months old, fail to locate an object removed from their sight and act unaware of its existence.
45
What is Phonemic awareness?
Awareness of the component sounds within words.
46
Quantitative changes
Gradual, incremental change, as in the growth of a pine tree’s girth.
46
What is Qualitative changes?
Piaget's stage theories suggest that each stage represents qualitative change relative to previous stages, illustrating large, fundamental changes like a caterpillar turning into a butterfly.
47
Distinguish components of the social brain and understand their differences in autism
The superior temporal sulcus (STS) and the fusiform gyrus (FG) are the most thoroughly investigated areas of the social brain in autism.
* Autism children display reduced sensitivity to biological motion from very early in life.
* Autistic children tend to show decreased attention to human faces by six to 12 months.
* Slowed processing of faces is a characteristic of Autistic people that is shared by parents of children with autism and infants at increased risk for developing autism.
47
What are the basic symptoms of autism
* Difficulties in social functioning are present in varying degrees for simple and complex behaviors.
* Social information processing difficulties occur in both visual and auditory sensory modalities.
* Autistic individuals often do not use their eyes when judging facial expressions of emotion.
* Social difficulties unique to autism, with the onset of these deficits appearing as early as 6 months of age.
48
What is the social brain?
The set of neuroanatomical structures that allows us to understand the actions and intentions of other people.
48
What is STS?
the posterior superior temporal sulcus
49
What is fMRI?
fMRI uses magnets to measure brain oxygen levels, indicating brain regions with increased blood flow.
It provides spatial information by detecting brain regions critical for social processes, allowing for precise pinpointing of brain regions with millimeter accuracy.
49
What is ERP?
ERP measures neuronal activity in the cortex, providing insights into processing timing and millisecond pace, enabling accurate tracking of brain activity.
49
What is FG?
fusiform gyrus
50
What is OFC?
the orbital frontal cortex
51
What is Autism?
* A Developmental Condition
* apart of the category of neurodevelopmental disorders, including Intellectual Disabilities, Autism Spectrum Disorder, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and Learning Disorders.
52
What is Authoritative
A parenting style involving high expectations, good communication, warmth, and reasoning over coercion is characterized by nurturing and nurturing children.
i.e the ideal parenting style
52
What are the four type of parenting styles?
1. Authoritarian
2. Authoritative
3. Uninvolved
4. Permissive
53
What is Family Stress Model?
The study highlights the detrimental impact of financial difficulties on child adjustment, including parents' depressed mood, increased marital issues, and poor parenting.
i.e hard day at work, and feels stressed so takes it out on the children when you get home.
53
what is Effortful control?
A temperament quality that enables children to be more successful in motivated self-regulation.
54
What is Gender schemas?
Organized beliefs and expectations about maleness and femaleness that guide children’s thinking about gender.
55
What is Goodness of fit?
A good "fit" between a child's temperament and parental care characteristics leads to positive or negative personality development, as parents accommodate the child's temperamental attributes.
56
What is Security of attachment?
An infant’s confidence in the sensitivity and responsiveness of a caregiver, especially when he or she is needed. Infants can be securely attached or insecurely attached.
57
What is Conscience?
The cognitive, emotional, and social influences that cause young children to create and act consistently with internal standards of conduct.
58
What is Social referencing?
The process by which one individual consults another’s emotional expressions to determine how to evaluate and respond to circumstances that are ambiguous or uncertain.
59
What is Temperament?
Early emerging differences in reactivity and self-regulation, which constitutes a foundation for personality development.
60
What are the four attachment styles?
1. Secure- safe and loving
2. Anxious - elicit care and negative
3. Avoidant- rejected or ignored from caregiver
4. Disorganized- fearful and atypical
61
What is Interpersonal?
Interpersonal functions of emotion refer to the impact of one's emotions on others, or the relationship between oneself and others within a group.
61
What is Intrapersonal?
Intrapersonal functions of emotion refer to the physical and psychological effects of emotion on individuals, occurring both physically and mentally within their bodies.
62
What is Social and cultural for emotions?
Society and culture are interconnected systems of relationships, with emotions playing a crucial role in maintaining and functioning these systems across generations.
62
What is Social referencing?
Individuals seek information from others to clarify situations and make decisions about their behavior, often using emotional expressions as a source of information.
62
What are Cultural display rules?
Cultural display rules, learned early in life, dictate how individuals express and modify their emotions based on social circumstances. These rules can involve expressing emotions as they are, exaggerating or reducing expressions, hiding feelings, or showing nothing at all.
63
What is Attachment patterns?
(also called “attachment styles” or “attachment orientations”) Individual differences in how securely (vs. insecurely) people think, feel, and behave in attachment relationships.
64
What is Strange situation?
A laboratory task that involves briefly separating and reuniting infants and their primary caregivers as a way of studying individual differences in attachment behavior.
i.e mother leaves to room, and see how the infant reacts
65
What is Attachment behavioral system?
Evolutionarily, a motivational system was chosen to maintain a child's proximity to their primary attachment figure.
66
What is Attachment behaviors?
Behaviors and signals that attract attention to a primary attachment figure, such as crying or clinging, serve to prevent separation or reestablish proximity.
67
What is Attachment figure?
An attachment figure, typically a parent in childhood or a romantic partner in adulthood, serves as the primary safe haven and secure base for an individual.
i.e my mother
68
What is Deviant peer contagion?
The spread of problem behaviors within groups of adolescents.
69
What is Differential susceptibility?
Genetic factors that make individuals more or less responsive to environmental experiences.
70
What is Homophily
Adolescents tend to associate with peers who are similar to themselves.
70
What is the process of Identity Formation?
1. Diffusion- not a priority
2. Moratorium- not decided yet
3. Achievement- tried and picked
Foreclosure- decide too soon
70
What is Moratorium?
State in which adolescents are actively exploring options but have not yet made identity commitments.
71
What is Identity diffusion?
Adolescents neither explore nor commit to any roles or ideologies.
72
What is Foreclosure?
Individuals commit to an identity without exploration of options.
73
What is Identity achievement?
Individuals have explored different options and then made commitments.
74
What is Psychological control?
Parents’ manipulation of and intrusion into adolescents’ emotional and cognitive world through invalidating adolescents’ feelings and pressuring them to think in particular ways.
75
What is Individualism?
Independence
Self-sufficiency, personal preferences
Adulthood = $ independent from parents
E.g. Canada, United States, Germany, Ireland, South Africa, Australia
People are finically idenpecne from their parents
75
What is five features that distinguish emerging adulthood from other life stages.
1. Identity explorations Who am I and what do I want?
2. Instability Moving, status changes
3. Self-focus Less parental constraints, not yet “tied down”
4. Feeling neither adult nor adolescent Responsible for self, but not feeling capable or knowledgeable
5. Future possibilities Optimism about success in love, work, etc.
76
What is Collectivism?
Interdependence
Group cohesion & family ties
Adulthood = able to care ($) for parents
E.g. China, Japan, Indonesia, India, Ghana, Guatemala
Peple feel like an adult whent they feel like they are able to take care of their parents
77
What is OECD countries?
Members of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, comprised of the world’s wealthiest countries.
i.e America, Canada, Japan, England
78
What is Emerging adulthood?
From 18-25, the adult life stage involves love and work, identity exploration, self-development, feeling incompletely adult, and a broad sense of possibilities.
79
What is Tertiary education?
Education or training beyond secondary school, usually taking place in a college, university, or vocational training program.
80
What is Non-industrialized countries?
The less economically advanced countries that comprise the majority of the world’s population. Most are currently developing at a rapid rate.
i.e Grenada
81
What is Cross-sectional studies?
This research method explores age group differences, which are often influenced by cohort differences, history, and study time.
82
What is Hedonic well-being?
Component of well-being that refers to emotional experiences, often including measures of positive (e.g., happiness, contentment) and negative affect (e.g., stress, sadness).
83
What is Crystallized intelligence
Type of intellectual ability that relies on the application of knowledge, experience, and learned information.
83
What is Life course theories?
The theory of development considers the impact of social expectations, age-related life events, social roles, and lifelong cumulative effects of specific cohorts, sociocultural subgroups, and historical events.
84
What is Fluid intelligence?
Type of intelligence that relies on the ability to use information processing resources to reason logically and solve novel problems.
85
What is Global subjective well-being?
Individuals’ perceptions of and satisfaction with their lives as a whole.
86
What is Life span theories?
The theory of development emphasizes the patterning of lifelong differences in the shape, level, and rate of change within and between individuals.
87
What is Psychometric approach?
Approach to studying intelligence that examines performance on tests of intellectual functioning.
88
What is Socioemotional Selectivity Theory?
The theory suggests that older adults prioritize emotional needs over information-gathering goals, and selectively choose social partners who can meet this need.
88
What is Subjective age?
A multidimensional construct that indicates a person's age and age group categorization.
88
What is Recall?
Type of memory task where individuals are asked to remember previously learned information without the help of external cues.
89
What is Self-perceptions of aging?
An individual’s perceptions of their own aging process; positive perceptions of aging have been shown to be associated with greater longevity and health.
I.e my mom
89
What is Convoy Model of Social Relations?
The theory suggests that age-related changes in social exchange frequency, types, and reciprocity significantly impact the health and well-being of both givers and receivers in the exchange.
90
What is Successful aging?
Includes three components: avoiding disease, maintaining high levels of cognitive and physical functioning, and having an actively engaged lifestyle.
90
What is Intra- and inter-individual differences?
Different patterns of development observed within an individual (intra-) or between individuals (inter-).
91
What is Cohort?
Group of people typically born in the same year or historical period, who share common experiences over time; sometimes called a generation (e.g., Baby Boom Generation).
92
What is Heterogeneity?
Inter-individual and subgroup differences in level and rate of change over time.
93
What is Recognition?
Type of memory task where individuals are asked to remember previously learned information with the assistance of cues.
93
What is Autobiographical narratives
A qualitative research method used to understand characteristics and life themes that an individual considers to uniquely distinguish him- or herself from others.
