psyc111 - brain and behaviour Flashcards
(283 cards)
1
Q
acalculia
A
not sure where to put numbers
2
Q
achromatopsia
A
Absence of colour vision, caused by damage to the V4 - located in the ventromedial region of the occipital lobe
Or caused by missing cones
3
Q
agnosia
A
The inability of the brain to recognise / name a stimulus, despite being able to see it. Caused by neuropathology in temporal, parietal or occipital lobe
4
Q
agraphia
A
inability to write, difficulty organising words on a page
5
Q
akinetopsia
A
Can’t see things moving - absence of motion vision (snapshot). Caused by damage to V5 - in occipital lobe
6
Q
Anatomy of temporal lobe
A
lateral surface - superior, middle, and inferior temporal gyrus
medial surface - medial temporal lobe
7
Q
Anterior chamber
A
Filled with a liquid substance called aqueous humour which is full of nutrients. Provides nutrients and takes waste away
8
Q
apperception
A
the mental process by which a person makes sense of an idea by assimilating it to the body of ideas he or she already processes
9
Q
Apperceptive agnosia
A
The failure of object recognition due to failure of visual perception
Poor matching and copying
Peppery mask hypothesis
Caused by neuropathology
10
Q
Associative agnosia
A
Failure of object recognition due to a higher-order complex perceptual impairment
Seemingly normal copying, but “slavish”
Hard time noticing between possible and impossible figures
Preserved elementary visual function
Generally attributed to anterior left temporal lobe infraction
11
Q
autobiographical memory
A
memory for one person’s person history. A combination of episodic and semantic memory
12
Q
Binocular cues
A
Visual information taken in with 2 eyes
Convergence
Divergence
13
Q
Bitemporal hemianopia
A
Don’t see from outside only have nasal vision, can’t see inwards - caused by severing of the optic chiasm
14
Q
Blind Spot
A
Where the optic nerve attaches to the retina, there are no photoreceptors
15
Q
Blindsight
A
Has the ability to locate an object but an inability to see it. Caused by damage to the ventral (what) stream in V1 - occipital lobe
16
Q
Bottom-up theory
A
That you piece together little details until you have a full view - i.e. visual system - through spots/lines etc recognition you will eventually form an entire image. The piecing together of little details to build an overall understanding
17
Q
Cataracts
A
Clouded lens
18
Q
Centre-surround architecture
A
Enhances contrast, brightness contrast
19
Q
changes in sleep pattern
A
Leads to an increased risk factor to cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular risks, obesity, mood disorders, and age-related macular degeneration (vision loss)
20
Q
Choroid
A
Vascular tunic, mesh of blood supply from the blood vessels, keeps eye alive
21
Q
circadian rhythm
A
Physical, mental, behavioural changes that occur within a human over a period of 24hrs
22
Q
Cones
A
6 million cones
Activated in high light / high resolution (daytime)
In charge of colour vision (red cones and green cones)
Focused in the centre of the retina. Optic nerve attaches to back of eye = optic disk
23
Q
Congenital cataracts
A
Cataracts from birth
24
Q
contralateral neglect
A
deficit in attention to one part of the VF, usually to the side that is contralateral to the damage
difficulty attending to or responding to stimuli on the side of space opposite to the side of a brain injury, often the left side after right hemisphere damage
25
convergence
The way your eyes move together and point inwards when you look at an object
26
Cornea
Thin protective layer on the eye. Begins the focusing but not much. Transparent. Biological system that needs nutrients and waste removal to keep it alive. Substances in anterior, vitreous chamber to keep it alive. Do not want blood supply or would impair vision.
27
cortex
outer layer of the brain
28
Critical period
Need to be exposed to light within 6-12 months, otherwise you will be blind forever, e.g. cataracts
29
Critical period disruption
Lack of visual stimulation leads to irreversible atrophy and essentially blindness. 6-9 months in primates
30
damage to A1
deaf
31
damage to left medial temporal lobe
hearing is ok, visual and verbal memory is impaired
32
damage to middle and inferior temporal gyrus
achromatopsia
akinetopsia
ventral simultagnosia
associative agnosia
33
damage to parietal lobe
impairments in; integrating sensory information, the control of movements, guiding movements to points in space, in abstract concepts, in directing attention, in processing spatial information
34
damage to right medial temporal lobe
copying is ok, but visual memory is impaired
35
damage to V1
blind
36
Damage to V4
struggle more depicting stationary objects in comparison to objects in motion
37
Divergence
The outward rotation of the eyes, especially when shifting focus from a nearby object to one far away
38
Dorsal simultanagnosia
Failure of object recognition due to a spatial perceptual impairment
Preserved elementary visual function
Can recognise objects but not more than one at a time. Caused by neuropathology
Colour and motion are attacked. Dorsal stream of parietal lobe and often accompanied with damage to the occipital lobe (as it is rare to see lesion in only one area of brain in humans)
39
Dorsal Stream
“WHERE” pathway - spatial location, goes to top of brain going towards parietal lobe
40
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Measures gross brain electrical activity
41
Electromyogram (EMG)
Measures and records muscle activity
42
Electrooculogram (EOG)
Measures and records eye movements
43
Embedded Figures Test
Shapes and features embedded within the image
44
emotional memory
emotion-memory interactions, often important in episodic history
45
encoding
the conversion of information into a form that can be stored in memory
46
encoding, storage and retrieval
unitary model of memory
47
episodic memory
memory of personal life experiences
48
first systematic study of memory
testing people with nonsense information, which you cannot connect back to your previous experience, is not an appropriate test of memory
49
Fovea
Small, central pit composed of closely packed cones in the eye. Located in the centre of the macula lutea of the retina
50
Fritsch and Hitzig (1870)
Notices that stimulation of a strip of cortex (motor crotex) caused contralateral movement of body parts
very organised topography suggests localisation of function
the brain is an electrical structure
51
Gall and Spurzheim
Phrenology
pseudoscience in which bumps and depressions on the skull were associated with well-developed and under-developed behaviours
one of the first attempts at localisation of function
52
George Miller Study
Researched the capacity limits with immediate processing in memory
Asked people to remember a list of numbers, and figured that the magic number people remembered was 7 +- 2.
53
Hermann Ebbinghauss (1850-1909)
A German psychologist who was the first person to investigate memory scientifically and systematically.
54
Hermann Grid illusion
You see black spots at the intersection because the RGC are performing lateral inhibition. At fovea, everything is packed much more tightly, so the receptive field is smaller.
55
Homonymous hemianopia
One side only has temporal vision working and the other side only have nasal vision working - caused by the severing of the optic tract
56
Homonymous hemianopia with macular sparing
When theres a dot in the middle of vision - donut hole - half of vision gone on one side plus a dot you cannot see in field of vision
57
How does memory persistence relate to trauma?
Memory of a traumatic event is often enhanced due to arousal and attention.
58
How image / light gets into brain
Light - cornea - lens (which focuses light on the retina - ganglion cell layer - bipolar cell layer - photoreceptor layer - optic nerve - lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) - V1 (located in cortex) = primary visual cortex = area 17 = striate cortex
Most basic visual pathway = Eyes - LGN - V1
59
How many neurons are in the average human brain?
Approximately 85 billion neurons.
60
impairments of left parietal damage
agraphia, acalculia, right/;eft confusion, dyslexia, difficulty drawing details
61
impairments of right parietal damage
difficulty in recognising unfamiliar views of objects, difficulty in drawing, contralateral neglect
62
Iris
Coloured part of the eye, muscle, allows light to enter by contracting or restricting
63
Karl Wernicke (1873)
notices a severe language problem in his patient
patient's output is normal but comprehension seems impaired
upon patient's death, Wernicke removed the brain and noticed a lesion on the left temporal lobe
Wernicke's finding challenges the notion of localisation of function
64
Lateral inhibition
Stops its neighbours from doing their job / the capacity of excited neuron to reduce activity of neighbouring cells. Stops the spread of action potential = contrast in stimulation, therefore = an increase in sensory perception. Light causes more lateral inhibition than dark causes
Inhibits the signal of the other cell
65
Lens
Focuses the light / image, to perfectly situate on the back of the eye. Can be contracted and condensed by ciliary muscles. Acts like a magnifying glass
PROCESS OF ACCOMMODATION:
Tension: more focused
Relaxed: less focused (looking into distance)
Adjusts to see things in near or far distance
66
long term memory
has a retention for decades, and a massive capacity
67
Mishkin and Underlieder (1982)
Found that the temporal lobe is needed for object discrimination and parietal lobe is needed for landmark discrimination - double dissociation
68
Monocular blindness
Can’t see from one eye - caused by a severed optic nerve
69
Monocular cues
Depth cues perceived with one eye
Interposition
Relative height/location in the picture plane
Textural gradient
Light and shadows
Relative size
Motion parallax
70
Neural implementation
The translation of information into a form that the brain can understand
Sensory organ absorbs energy
Energy is transduced into neural signal (action potential)
Action potential sent around to be processed
71
neuropathology
The study of diseases affecting the nervous system, including the central and peripheral nervous systems, skeletal muscles and the eye
72
occipital lobe damage
causes blindness, blindsight
and apperception
73
Optic chiasm
The location in the brain where the optic nerves from each eye converge and cross, forming the optic tracts
74
Patient D.B
His study created change
He had blindsight and left homonymous hemianopia
If an object was still there he could tell it was there but if it was moved then he wouldn’t know where it was
He had his right occipital lobe removed which caused left homonymous hemianopia
Before optic chiasm would cause damage on same side
After optic chiasm would cause damage on opposite side
DB presented with an object - couldn’t see the object but he could point to it - sense it
75
Paul Broca (1861)
severe language problem and is only able to say the word 'tan', Broca removes Tan's brain and notices a large lesion in the left frontal area (now known as Broca's area)
Broca localises language to the left frontal lobe
Broca's aphasia is a difficulty with language output
76
Peterson & Peterson study (1959)
presented info to people with 3 digit numbers and 3 letters, task was to remember what the letters were, but while waiting for signals counting backwards in threes. Recall signal and report
77
phase shifts (delay/advance)
A change in the timings of the internal biological rhythm - in humans, it is easier to phase delay than phase advance, due to the natural 25 hour body clock
78
pineal gland
tiny endocrine gland in the middle of the brain that regulate your circadian rhythm through the secretion of the hormone melatonin at night
79
Problems with young helmholtz trichromatic theory
Colour blindness occurs in pairs
Colour after-effect - when staring at one colour for a long period of time, you will see that colour (but its opposite colourz0 stained when you look away from coloured object
Genes for colour are located in X-chromosomes - 1 X-chromosome in males, 2 in females
Cells fire a lot to yellow and less to blue, but at a baseline rate at red and green
Opponent processing theory - more supported theory - 3 opponent systems control colour: blue/yellow, red/green, black/white
Explains why you can see mixed of some colours but not others - can see an orangey yellow but not a red-y green
80
pupil
Black circle, hole that allows light into the eye
81
Receptive field
Area of the retina that when stimulated, causes a change in the neural activity of the cell
82
recuperation theory
sleep deprivation should preodue physiological and psychological disturbances. These disturbances should get worse as deprivation continues. After deprivation much of the sleep debt will be recovered
83
Rene Descartes
Recognised the brain was symmetrical and every structure on your left side is also on the right side
84
Retina
Sheath of cells at the back of the inner layer. Light travels from RGC (retinal ganglion cells) layer to bipolar cell layer to photoreceptor layer (made of rods and cones) to the back of the eye
85
Retina - nasal / temporal
Nasal is lateral
Temporal is medial
86
Retinotopic mapping
Point-to-point mapping of the external world onto retina, LGN, and V1. e.g. leg on one part of retina, arm on another - this part of visual world falls on this part of retina etc
87
Rods
120 million rods
Activated during low light / low resolution (nighttime)
Black and white vision
Cones are focused and condensed on the peripheral of the retina
88
Secondary projection system
Process where information from eye goes straight to the parietal lobe. That means that your dorsal pathway bypasses the LGN and the V1 and goes straight to the parietal lobe
Ventral stream goes from eye to LGN to V1 and then beyond
Dorsal stream goes straight to parietal lobe and then V5
89
semantic memory
the recollection of ideas, concepts, and facts - e.g. knowing the capital of Wellington but not remembering where you learnt it
90
Sensitive period
Beneficial to be exposed during this time period, e.g. language development - it is beneficial to learn a new language before the age of 11
91
sensory memory
initial storage of sensory information from our senses before it's processed further into STM
92
Sharp-Wave Ripples (SWR)
Occur duing SWS. Neurons in the hippocampus sometimes fire in a pattern that is similar to patterns that occurred during awake experience. Disruption of SWRs during rest hampers memory consolidation
93
Short term memory
lasts for about 15-20 seconds and has limited capacity
94
Sleep spindles co-occur in neocortex
The more spindles you have, the better your memory will be
95
storage
the creation of a trace of this information within the nervous system
96
subcortex
inner layer of the brain
97
sulcus
folds in brain
creates a larger surface area to volume ratio
more area means more neurons which means more functions
98
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus
Internal biological clock; 25 hour body clock but 24 hour circadian rhythm with sun, exercise, food, and social contacts
Melanopsin receptors in the eye respond to the presence of light by transmitting signals to the SCN
Light-induced activation of the SCN prevents the pineal gland from producing melatonin, a hormone that otherwise signals ‘biological night’
Light-dark entrainment of the SCN synchronises ‘peripheral oscillators’ throughout the body, although these can be shifted by factors such as eating, exercising, and body temp
99
SWS and REM
Five periods of Rapid Eye Movement, the increase of REM sleep in the second half of the night and the decrease of Slow Wave Sleep in the second half of the night compared to the increase in SWS in first half of the night.
The REM periods also get longer in the second half of the night, lasting about 45 mins, while only lasting 15-20 mins in first half of the night
100
the forgetting curve
a model demonstrating how rapidly information is forgotten over time if not actively reviewed or reinforced
101
Top-down theory
Look at a whole picture and then break down the details
Uses contextual information - if you have context around the object, you can make it out quicker - i.e. misspelt words - can interpret what they are if they’re in a sentence
Hypothesis testing
Speed or recognition / reading
Illustrated with ambiguous and reversible figures
Subjective contouring
102
Totopic and somatic sensory mapping
Perfect mapping in primary visual areas
103
Ventral simultagnosia (beyond V1)
Failure of object recognition due to a complex perceptual impairment
Preserved elementary visual function
Can recognise that there are multiple objects but can only see one at a time
People with this condition see more crude shapes when attempting to see the scene
Can understand that there are multiple objects in the scene but when they attempt to look at it all together, everything becomes unclear
See everything in correct spatial orientation but cannot identify everything in one go
Damage is V1 (apperceptive agnosia) but not as far as TE. Towards the end of the ventral stream. Lesions of the left-temporal-occipital region
104
Ventral Stream
“WHAT” pathway - pattern perception, goes to the bottom of brain towards temporal lobe
105
Vitreous humour
Good for nutrients and waste. Less liquidy, more jelly like
106
Wagner et al, nature (2004)
Sleep inspires insight. Cueing memories during SWS enhances subsequent performance. Learning - sleep - retrieval. During sleep, the hippocampus generates brief bursts called Sharp-Wave Ripples
107
What are agonists?
Drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter by activating it.
108
What are alpha motor neurons?
They generate action potentials to contract muscle fibers.
109
What are grasping and suckling reflexes in babies?
Grasping and suckling are reflexes present in babies that can be inhibited by a maturing brain but may also be disinhibited.
110
What are ion channels?
Specialized protein structures that act as pathways for ions to cross cell membranes.
111
What are neurons?
The basic building blocks of the nervous system (NS) that receive and send electrochemical messages.
112
What are the four components of Working Memory proposed by Baddeley and Hitch?
1. Central executive (in command) 2. Visuospatial sketchpad (inner eye) 3. Phonological loop (inner ear + inner voice) 4. Episodic Buffer (temporary storage, chunking, LTM integration)
113
What are the four lobes of the human cerebral cortex?
Frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe.
114
What are the Levels of Memory?
Biological, individual, social, and cultural.
115
What are the negative symptoms of schizophrenia?
Blunted affect, poverty of speech and thought, and apathy.
116
What are the positive symptoms of schizophrenia?
Delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thinking.
117
What are the primary symptom clusters of PTSD?
Avoidance, psychological reactivity, and re-experiencing the traumatic event.
118
What are the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease?
Tremors, muscular rigidity, slowness of movements, and postural instability.
119
What are vesicles in neurons?
They contain neurotransmitters that transmit information across the synapse.
120
What characterizes a poly-synaptic reflex?
In a poly-synaptic reflex, the signal is split and sent to both the quadriceps and an inhibitory interneuron, which prevents the opposing muscle from contracting.
121
What did Bransford and Johnson (1972) demonstrate?
Prior knowledge and contextual cues improve comprehension and recall of new information.
122
What did Butters and Albert (1982) research focus on?
Their research highlighted the distinction between semantic and episodic memory and how different types of memory systems are affected in amnesic patients.
123
What did Butters and Albert find regarding recollection in retrograde amnesia?
People with retrograde amnesia had less than 10% recollection for the 60s, 15% for the 50s, with recollection increasing as time goes on.
124
What did Godden and Baddeley (1975) investigate?
The influence of environmental context on learning and retrieval of information.
125
What did Stein and Bransford (1979) find?
Base and elaboration had the most effective recall compared to other conditions.
126
What do sensory neurons do?
They receive information from the external world and convey this information to the brain.
127
What does Depth of Processing refer to?
The level at which information is encoded, with deeper processing leading to better retention.
128
What does the cerebellum do?
Involved with learning skills and movement coordination.
129
What does the temporal lobe do?
Critically involved with memory.
130
What happened to Patient K.F.?
A motorcycle accident resulted in the removal of a left parietal subdural hematoma, affecting his long-term memory.
131
What happens when an action potential arrives at an axon terminal?
A neurotransmitter is released at the synaptic cleft.
132
What is a cholinergic synapse?
A synapse that uses acetylcholine as its neurotransmitter.
133
What is a graded potential?
A temporary change in a neuron’s membrane potential that varies with stimulus strength.
134
What is a Habit?
A learned behavior that becomes automatic through repetition, often occurring without conscious thought.
135
What is a monosynaptic reflex?
A reflex involving one synapse between muscle and neurons.
136
What is a monosynaptic stretch reflex?
A monosynaptic stretch reflex occurs when stretch receptors detect muscle stretch and send signals to excitatory alpha motor neurons, increasing their firing rate.
137
What is a reflex?
A simple, automatic response to stimuli that is subconscious and unrelated.
138
What is a reflex?
A reflex is a stereotyped, subconscious, and unlearned automatic response to a stimulus.
139
What is a schema?
A mental framework or organized pattern of thought about some aspect of the world, shaping encoding.
140
What is a synapse?
The junction or region between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another, facilitating communication.
141
What is absentmindedness or encoding failure?
The result of shallow encoding due to a failure to pay attention.
142
What is acetylcholine (ACh)?
A neurotransmitter involved in voluntary motor control.
143
What is action potential?
An electrical signal conducted along the length of a neuron’s axon to the synapse, reaching a maximum value of +40 mV.
144
What is an antagonist?
Drugs that block the function of a neurotransmitter.
145
What is Anterograde Amnesia?
The inability to create new memories.
146
What is blocking or retrieval failure?
The feeling of knowing something but being unable to retrieve it.
147
What is chunking?
Grouping individual items into larger, more familiar units of meaning to overcome the limited capacity of working memory.
148
What is Conditioning?
A learning process where behaviors become associated with specific stimuli.
149
What is dopamine (DA)?
A neurotransmitter that regulates motor behavior, motivation, pleasure, and emotional arousal.
150
What is Elaborative Rehearsal?
Providing more context on information to enhance encoding into long-term memory, contrasting with maintenance retrieval.
151
What is Encoding - Retrieval Context?
When storing a memory, information about the environment or context is also stored as part of the memory trace.
152
What is forgetting?
The inability to recall previously stored information.
153
What is GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)?
The major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.
154
What is Genetic Memory?
Inherited behavior.
155
What is glutamate?
The major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in information transmission throughout the brain.
156
What is ICSS?
Intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) involves placing an electrode in the brain of a mouse, connected to a wire and electrical stimulator to activate pleasure centers.
157
What is L-Dopa used for?
It treats Parkinson’s disease by increasing dopamine levels.
158
What is long term memory?
Long term memory has a retention for decades and a massive capacity. It is more semantic, focusing on the meaning of the word.
159
What is Maintenance Rehearsal according to Craik and Watkins?
A method of holding words in memory until the next one occurs, then recalling them later from long-term memory.
160
What is membrane depolarization?
A decrease in the electrical charge difference across a cell’s membrane.
161
what is memory
the recording of the past for later use in the present
162
What is Memory Consolidation?
The process of transforming newly formed memories into long-lasting, stable memories, often occurring during sleep.
163
What is memory distortion: bias?
The influence of current knowledge on memory for past events.
164
What is memory distortion: misattribution?
Assigning a memory to the wrong source.
## Footnote
Example: President Bush's claim about witnessing the first plane's impact.
165
What is memory distortion: suggestibility?
Altering a memory due to misleading information, leading to false memories.
166
What is pareidolia?
Seeing faces in inanimate objects.
167
What is Priming?
The phenomenon where prior exposure to a stimulus influences a person's response to a subsequent stimulus, often unconsciously.
168
What is proactive interference?
Old learning interferes with new learning.
## Footnote
Example: Forgetting where you parked after changing your usual spot.
169
What is reconsolidation?
The process necessary each time a memory is reactivated, making it susceptible to change.
170
What is resting potential?
The difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of a neuron’s cell membrane, approximately -70 mV.
171
What is retroactive interference?
New learning interferes with old learning.
## Footnote
Example: Learning Italian interferes with recalling Spanish.
172
What is Retrograde Amnesia?
Loss of memory that was intact before trauma, such as forgetting recent events but recalling childhood memories.
173
What is retrograde amnesia?
It is the inability to remember events that occurred prior to a trauma.
174
What is reuptake?
The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron.
175
What is sensory memory?
Sensory memory lasts for 0.3 to 3 seconds and is another form of memory system.
176
What is serotonin involved in?
The regulation of sleep, wakefulness, eating, and aggressive behavior.
177
What is short term memory?
Short term memory lasts for around 15-20 seconds and has limited capacity. It involves the phonetic features of the word, shape, and sound.
## Footnote
If short term memory is unitary as proposed, then information processing should always be limited to a small number of items.
178
What is Skill Learning?
Acquiring the ability to perform specific tasks effectively through practice, training, or instruction.
179
What is spatial summation?
The cumulative effect on membrane potential from multiple stimuli applied simultaneously.
180
What is synaptic transmission?
The process that allows neurons to communicate, resulting in thoughts, emotions, and behavior.
181
What is synthesis in neurotransmission?
The process of creating neurotransmitters in the neuron.
182
What is temporal lobe amnesia?
Episodic memory is disrupted, but semantic memory and skill learning are intact.
183
What is temporal summation?
The accumulation of rapidly occurring stimuli at a single synapse.
184
What is the brain stem responsible for?
Controlling intake of food and water, and body temperature.
185
What is the difference between Implicit and Explicit memory?
Implicit memory is unconscious and affects behavior without awareness, while explicit memory involves conscious recollection of facts and events.
186
What is the difference between phonetic and semantic encoding?
Poor recall from short-term memory for words that sound the same, but better recall for long-term memory. Conversely, words with the same meaning have poor recall in long-term memory but better in short-term memory.
187
What is the function of dendrites?
They receive information from other neurons and relay it to the rest of the body.
188
What is the function of motor neurons?
They carry signals from the spinal cord to the muscles to produce movement.
189
What is the function of the occipital lobe?
Concerned with vision and determining what’s in the visual field.
190
What is the function of the parietal lobe?
Helps in understanding the position of the body and limbs in space.
191
What is the insular lobe?
Plays an important role in the perception of oneself as an individual.
192
What is the knee-tap reflex used for?
The knee-tap reflex is used to ensure that reflexes are functioning properly.
193
What is the Method of Loci?
A mnemonic device that enhances memory by associating information with specific locations in a familiar environment.
194
What is the Primary and Recency Effect?
The first few items are stored in long-term memory (primary), and the last few items are stored in short-term memory (recency), making middle items hardest to recall.
195
What is the role of the axon?
Transmits information to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
196
What is the role of the frontal lobe?
Involved in decision making and planning.
197
What is the Serial Position Effect?
When recalling a list of words, people tend to remember the first and last items best, while recall for middle items is poorer.
198
What is the significance of dopamine?
A neurotransmitter in the brain involved in various functions.
199
What is the ventral tegmental area (VTA)?
A region with dopaminergic neurons projecting to areas like the nucleus accumbens.
200
What is the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR)?
The vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) is a crucial reflex that stabilizes vision during head movements by counter-rotating the eyes.
201
What is the withdrawal reflex?
The withdrawal reflex occurs when pain receptors send signals up the spinal cord, resulting in a reflex action before conscious pain is felt.
202
What is trace decay?
The theory that memory fades away with time if not accessed regularly, involving a change in the biology of the memory trace.
203
What role does norepinephrine (NE) play?
It influences mood, arousal, cognitive functions, and stress reactions.
204
What was the primary task in Baddeley and Hitch's study?
Participants were presented with a word list auditorily while simultaneously repeating visually represented digits.
205
Which brain areas are activated during ICSS?
The pleasure centers activated include the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the nucleus accumbens.
206
Who is Patient H.M.?
One of the most significant figures in understanding the brain and memory. After surgery to cut out the temporal lobe, H.M. could remember past events but struggled with new memories beyond 5-10 seconds.
207
Young helmholtz trichromatic theory
Theorised that there are three different cones for different wavelengths of light
Blue cones - short wavelength
Green cones - medium wavelength
Red cones - long wavelength
208
zeitgeber
provide input to circadian rhythm to help regulate cues
209
Tetrodotoxin
it blocks the ion channels that control action potential generation
210
imprinting
any kind of phase-sensitive learning that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behaviour.
211
homing
an animal's ability to return to its original location, often a nest or territory, after being displaced or having traveled a distance
212
habituation
refers to the decrease in a response to a stimulus that is repeatedly presented
213
Pavlovs experiment
demonstrated how learned associations can influence behaviours
Over time, a neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus, which eventually triggers a conditioned response. In Pavlov's experiment, the ringing of the bell became the conditioned stimulus, and salivation was the conditioned response.
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classical conditioning
a learning process where a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response due to its association with a stimulus that naturally evokes that response
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NS
neutral stimulus
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US
Unconditioned Stimulus
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UR
Unconditioned Response
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CS
Conditioned Stimulus
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CR
Conditioned Response
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Little Albert experiment
Unethical study -they paired a white rat initially neutral to toddler (Albert), with a loud and frightening noise, eventually causing Albert to fear the rat and other similar objects. Example of classical conditioning and stimulus generalisation
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stimulus generalisation
a person responds similarly to different stimuli as a result of being conditioned to respond to a specific stImulus
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Edwards & Acker (1972)
found that WWII veterans had changes in GSR to the sounds of battle, even 15 years after the war - PTSD
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compensatory reaction hypothesis
when a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response can be the opposite of the unconditioned response, effectively "compensating" for the unconditioned stimulus's effects.
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Acquisition
the process by which a conditioned stimulus comes to produce a conditioned response i.e. how a NS becomes a CS
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Delayed (forward) conditioning
CS comes immediately before (and overlaps with) US
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Trace (forward) conditioning
the CS starts and finishes before the US
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Simultaneous conditioning
the CS and the US start and end together
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Backward conditioning
the CS begins after the US
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Contingency
A simple contiguity between the US and the CS is not sufficient for conditioning to occur.
The CS must also be a reasonable predictor of the US.
The strength of the conditioned response depends on how often the CS accompanies the US, and how often the CS accompanies no US.
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Extinction
If the CS is repeatedly presented without the US, then the CR will gradually decrease
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spontaneous recovery
A CS-->CR relation is extinguished. After a period with no CS presentation, the CS may elicit the CR again
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stimulus discrimination
occurs when an organism does not respond to stimuli that are similar to the stimulus used in training
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blocking
conditioning does not occue if a good predictor of the Us already exists
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higher-order conditioning
the way that classical conditioning spreads
once a stimulus has become an effective CS for a certain CR, then that stimulus can be used to condition other stimuli
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sensory preconditioning
a conditioned response is elicited by a stimulus that was never directly paired with the unconditioned stimulus, but was previously paired with another stimulus that was later paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
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thorndike experiment
conducted experiment seeing whether animals could solve problems
achieved by designing a variety of 'puzzle boxes' from which cats had to learn to escape
unable to see insight proven
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law of effect
positive consequences increased the likelihood or probability of a response rather than a reflexive relation
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instrumental conditioning
the probability or likelihood of a response changing as a function of its consequences. The subject emits the response in order to produce a reward
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positive reinforcement
adding a stimulus or event contingent upon a response increases that behaviour
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negative reinforcement
removing a stimulus or event contingent upon a response increases that behaviour
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positive punishment
adding a stimulus or event contingent upon a response decreases that behaviour
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negative punishment
removing a stimulus or event contingent upon a response decreases that behaviour
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premack's principle
an opportunity to engage in a more probable behavior (high-probability behavior) will reinforce a less probable behavior (low-probability behavior). Essentially, you can use a desirable activity as a reward for a less desirable one.
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selective stimulus control
environments often complex - tendency to ignore redundant information even if relevant
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herrnstein & devilliers
can pigeons learn the concept 'fish'
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Breland & Breland 1961
using operant conditioning to train animals for advertising gimmicks
pigs depositing wooden coin into piggy bank
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latent learning
learning from experience when there appears no obvious reinforcement or punishment for the specific behaviour
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tolman & beck 1930
rats experience a maze without food. once food has been introduced, their learning of the maze was much quicker than control groups
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Palameta & Lefebvre 1985
a demonstrator bird trained to pierce red-half of a piece of paper to obtain food
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Cook & Mineka 1987
Tried to train fear of snakes in monkeys by observation
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Bandura et al 1963,1965
aggression and bobo
desensitises and habituates viewers to cruelty, and shapes viewers outlook on reality
kids that saw adult show aggression to the doll were more likely to treat the doll with aggressive behaviour, even going further than what the adult did
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albert bandura: four key processes required
attention - extent to which we focus on others behaviours
retention - retaining a representation of others behaviour
production - ability to perform actions we observe
motivation - need to perform actions we witness (usefulness)
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clever hans
german newspapers believed this horse Hans could understand spoken German and perform cognitive tasks
was actually reading the body language of his owner incredibly well - waited for cues from the owner to stop stomping his hoof
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The Kelloggs raised chimp Gua
Gua was raised alongside their son, nd learned to understand some commands but never verbally spoke English
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The Hayes raised chimp Vicki
learnt to make three "recognisable" words - mama, papa, and cup, but with great difficulty
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damage to occipital lobe
difficulty with object and color recognition, visual hallucinations and illusions, and problems with reading and writing, as well as spatial awareness and even blindness
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retrograde amnesia
a condition where an individual loses the ability to recall memories from their past, specifically before the onset of the amnesia.
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anterorgrade amnesia
inability to form new memories after amnesia, or injury
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craik and tulving
importance of depth of processing on memory recall
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Koehler et al (2012)
examined programs for young offenders in Europe
behavioural, non-behavioural, cognitive behavioural and behvioural treatments, non-behavioural orient programs
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infants at birth
prefer forward-going speech to back-going speech, prefer their own language, prefer mother's voice, can discriminate function words from content words acoustically, learns about language in the womb
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by 1 years old
only make contrast present in their own language, social knowledge -> look to the mouth when a cup is raised, look to the ear when a phone is raised
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nativism (noam chomsky)
believed certain aspects of language were innate because of the poverty of the stimulus
believed in universal grammar = all language share certain principles of grammar and these are innate, allowing children to master grammar by 3 years
learning theory (behaviourism) argued that parents reward children for correct grammar, punish them for incorrect grammar
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renee baillargeon
theory of mind / social knowledge
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learning theory
language cannot be learned through reward and punishment
can be learned using general learning such as statistical learning / learning of patterns
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statistical learning and grammar
grammatical categories occur in predictable positions in sentences
learning grammatical structure because of its reinforced similar sentence structure from parents (pattern learning)
nouns and verbs falling reliably in certain places in sentences -> brain picks up on it because brain is predisposed to statistical learning
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impaired statistical learning
specific language impairment (SLI)
- use short sentences, have small vocabularies, word finding problems, difficulty learning new words
- 50% about to go on to experience reading difficulties
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evans et al (2009)
- tested children aged 5-14 typical developing children and SLI children
- difficulty with statistical learning should contribute to difficulty with tones
- do SLI children have specific difficulties with language stimuli
- typically developing children are good at learning about patterns in syllables and tones, children with SLI have general difficulties with this
- better statistical learning is better language learning
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imprinting
- process by which mother-offspring attachments are formed in many species of birds
- precocial (mobile) follows first moving object they encounter after hatching
- establish a strong social relationship with this entity
- imprinting influences sexual preference and mate selection
- effects are long lasting
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konrad lorenz
showed that greyleg geese would imprint the first moving being they encountered during a critical period 13-16 hours after hatching
seeing a human would release a fixed action pattern
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Henry Harlow experiments
dominant behaviouralist belief at time: unnecessary physical contact would spoil child, emotions were of negligible importance.
argued for importance of a mother's love
achieved by monkeys raised in bare wire cages - could see and smell other monkeys but not touch
resulted in blank staring, repetitive circling, self mutilation
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Bowlby (1948)
Increased attention-seeking behaviour
apathy, indifference to people, withdrawal
cognitive and language impairments
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Harold Skeels (1930s)
adequate nutrition, warmth, cleanliness
at 29 months of age, 13/25 infants moved to an institution for intellectually disabled women and "adopted" by one woman
30 years later and 11/13 children were self-supporting, married with children, had normal IQs
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Dennis (1973)
studied 89 children in a Lebanese creche, almost no social interaction, assessed IQ after two years, saw early age of adoptions had better outcomes
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critical period
a period during development when the organism is partially susceptible to the effects of a particular experience
effects are dramatic and irreversible
sharp onset and offset points
e.g. imprinting in birds
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sensitive period
a period during development when the organism is particularly susceptible to the effects of a particular experience
harmful effects can be altered by later events
effects are less dramatic
begins and ends drastically
e.g. social development in humans and primates
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Perry (2002)
Children neglected went into foster care for one year, conclusion is that early removal from neglectful environment results in a bigger brain volume
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Kelly et al (1991)
review of sexual abuse surveys in American college surveys
cases involving some form of penetration or coerced / forced masturbation where the abuser was at least 5 years older OR any interaction that the younger person reported unwanted acts before they were 18
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why are Māori overrepresented in the child abuse statistics
because they are overrepresented in the poverty statistics - direct correlation
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childhood maltreatment NZ
NZ has the third highest rate of childhood maltreatment of 26 OECD countries of children to age 14
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Silverman, Reinherx, and Giaconia (1996)
interviewd children at 15 and asked if there was any time in their life they were physically abused and if there was any time in their life where they were sexually abused
80% of those abused had at least one psychiatric disorder at 21 - depression, anxiety, EDs, suicide attempts
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shaken baby syndrome
brain injury when baby is violently shaken
usually younger than 2 but sometimes up to age 5
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