Psyc112 Test Flashcards

Question

When do children begin to combine words?

Answer 1

Around 2 years

Answer 2

Syntax begins to resemble adult language

Answer 3

Children biologically predisposed to learn language, prespecificed knowledge of syntax, takes in ambient language around them to provide specific knowledge

Answer 4

Children take input from outside to add to their bio-program, similar to Chomsky's theory of Language Acquisition Device

Answer 5

1. Children acquire language rapidly 2. Children acquire language effortlessly 3. Children acquire language without being taught

Answer 6

Pidgin evolution into Creoles

Answer 7

An ideal time for acquire certain parts of language, difficult afterwards (Genie)

Answer 8

Pick up content words, but unable to pick up syntax

Answer 9

The older the language acquired, the lower the percentage of correct

Answer 10

Children will spend less time listening to familiar words and more time looking at novel words

Answer 11

1. Simplified speech 2. Exaggerated intonation

Answer 12

Adapt talk to child's level

Answer 13

Child learns to adpt to situation

Answer 14

1. Internal attributes 2. Self concept separate from group 3. Personal goals take priority

Answer 15

1. Social roles 2. Self concept = group concept 3. Group goals take priority 4. Relationships = crucial

Answer 16

Mental image, represents the concept, but also shares similarities (e.g picture of a dog)

Answer 17

Symbols = represent any kind of content, but don't represent what they stand for, visualizing something, in depth thinking concluded in simple image

Answer 18

Made up of a subject and what is being asserted about it (what is it doing)

Answer 19

An unambiguous internal representation that defines a group/set of objects/events

Answer 20

Move from general principles/rules to specific If/then problems Syllogism

Answer 21

If something is true for all members of a category and A is a member of that category, then that something will also be true for A

Answer 22

Test Hypothesis From data to theories Start with specifics and infer general principles

Answer 23

People judge whether the conclusion is plausible on its own rather than following the logic Often we go straight into conclusion, deducting plausibility based on our own belief (if irrelevant towards our own belief, conclusion is slower) Belief bias is the tendency in syllogistic reasoning to rely on prior beliefs rather than to fully obey logical principles.

Answer 24

Seek information that confirms what one already believes

Answer 25

Shortcuts that are correct much of the time, helps conserve cognitive resources

Answer 26

Estimates are influenced by how easy it is to retrieve information

Answer 27

The salience bias (also known as perceptual salience) occurs when we focus on items or information that are especially remarkable while casting aside those that lack prominence. Yet, people tend to overlook this difference because it often appears irrelevant from an objective point of view.

Answer 28

A rule that guarantees a solution

Answer 29

A strategy that doesn't guarantee a solution, but often work and saves time

Answer 30

Looking for all possible solutions

Answer 31

Work step-by-step to get closer to goal as you solve the problem, monitoring each step to see how much closer to the goal

Answer 32

Change the present state of the problem so you are one step closer to solving the problem

Answer 33

Thinking outside the box

Answer 34

Use the same way to solve a problem in the past for a present problem

Answer 35

After being told the story would help, 92% of people able to solve the problem (30% only told story, 10% not told)

Answer 36

Habits and Assumptions you bring to solving a problem

Answer 37

Unable to see things creatively outside of their regular function

Answer 38

Taking a break helps release from a mental set

Answer 39

Having a specific language determines or influences how we think

Answer 40

Focal colors are most representative colour of the colour category

Answer 41

Studied Dani tribe in Papua New Guinea, understood difference between dark/light color terms as focal colors = privileged memory

Answer 42

Russian Speaker faster to discriminate colours between categories than within categories, though discrimination is affected by verbal interference

Answer 43

Mandarin Speakers = time is vertical English Speakers = time is horizontal

Answer 44

Absolute: Ignoring contextual information Relative: Incorporating contextual information Length of line in square

Answer 45

Believed head size is related to intelligence, measured skulls from different races (bias towards Europeans)

Answer 46

Weighed brains of cadavers, compared groups, believed heavier brain is more intelligence (corrected for body size, though not for gender)

Answer 47

0.33, higher in females, and adults

Answer 48

Intelligence as hereditary Eugenics Made first system attempts to measure intelligence

Answer 49

Simple, perceptual sensory motor abilties (response, strength, perception), found there was no relation to social class, Pearson's R

Answer 50

Intelligence Testing for Children, more concerned with identifying children that needed help, intelligence = psychological construct, intelligence is a general ability, not just accumulation of knowledge

Answer 51

Performance on complex tasks with different levels of difficulty, excluded tasks that did not correlated with school performance

Answer 52

Mental Age/Chronological Age * 100

Answer 53

Believed intelligence is a fixed trait, innate (eugenics), wanted to identify intelligence to limit, segregate, selectively breed - Translated Binet test to English and promoted mass testing

Answer 54

People tend to perform better (5 to 25 points per generation)

Answer 55

Measures the magnitude of relation between 2 variables

Answer 56

G = general, underlies performance on all intelligence subtests S = specific to type of task

Answer 57

Fluid: Ability to learn, percieve relationships, deal with new problems Crystalised: Acquired knowledge of culture, vocabulary size

Answer 58

Job Performance Creativity Health and Wellbeing

Answer 59

1. Creative skills (formulate) 2. Analytical Skills (compare/analyse) 3. Practical Skills (carry it out) 4. Wisdom based skills

Answer 60

1. Linguistic 2. Musical 3. Logical/mathematical 4. Spatial 5. Bodily-kinesthetic 6. Internpersonal and intrapersonal Each type associated with localised area of brain, pattern of development, evidence form exceptional individuals

Answer 61

Twins are treated more similiarly by parents

Answer 62

Intervention Group were better off overall, early childhood education has impact later on in life.

Answer 63

African American children adopted into high SES families show higher IQ scores than those who remain in low SES homes.

Answer 64

Girls and boys math experiment

Answer 65

Same group overtime

Answer 66

Different groups

Answer 67

1. Sensorimotor 2. Preoperational 3. Concrete Operations 4. Formal Operations

Answer 68

Looking at visual stimuli Turn head towards noise

Answer 69

Follows moving object with eyes Stares at place where object has disappeared, but will not search

Answer 70

Grasp/manipulate objects, anticipates future position of objects

Answer 71

Searchs for hidden object A not B error, search in last place they found the object

Answer 72

Will search in last place they saw the object

Answer 73

Objects do not cease to exist when out of sight

Answer 74

A mental representation/set of rules that defines expectations, formation begins in sensorimotor stage

Answer 75

New Information modified to fit in with an existing schema

Answer 76

Ecidting schema modified/changed by new experience

Answer 77

Ability to form mental representations of others behaviour

Answer 78

Ability to think logically and symbolically, rapid development of language, counting, object manipulation

Answer 79

The understanding that specific properties of objects remains the same despite apparent changes in arrangement of those objects

Answer 80

A child's belief that others see the world the same way they do

Answer 81

Able to perform logical analysises, empathesis with thoughts and feelings of others, understand complex cause-effects relations

Answer 82

Abstract reasoning, metacognition (thinking about one's thinking), dependent on exposure to principles of scientific understanding

Answer 83

Children able to percieve depth around the same time they can crawl, pre-crawling infants able to discriminate depth

Answer 84

Person behind gate, infants notice things that appear odd

Answer 85

Infants prefer novel things, which can be used to determine which stimuli is more novel

Answer 86

Infants able to differentiate, but appear to have difficulty overriding a motor habbit.

Answer 87

False as 6 months old able to understand numbers

Answer 88

3 weeks old

Answer 89

9 months old

Answer 90

3, 4 years old able to pass diorama task 2, 3 years old children will turn a book around, bend down to talk to younger children.

Answer 91

Understanding that other people have other intentions, beliefs, likes/dislikes, perspectives

Answer 92

14 month old gave experimenter what they liked 18 month old gave experimenter what she liked

Answer 93

4 year olds pass, 3 year olds don't

Answer 94

Behaviour that conforms to accepted rules

Answer 95

Initially guided by consequences internalisation of rules principle of minimum sufficiency (minimal rewards/punishment)

Answer 96

Emphatic distress Offers of help are egocentric initially Prosocial behaviour may leave you worse off

Answer 97

Studied boys aged 10 -1 7, presented with cancer scenario.

Answer 98

1. Based on authority/punishment 2. Guided egocentrically by pleasantness of consequences

Answer 99

3. Maintaining good relations (regarded as a good person) 4. Maintaining social order (laws and rules maintain social order, so they must be obeyed)

Answer 100

5. Social contracts = rules, not all authority figures always right, individual rights can somethings precedence over laws. 6. Human rights and dignity are valued above all.

Answer 101

Chromosomes

Answer 102

What you look like/organs

Answer 103

Private sense of gender

Answer 104

Manual of mental disorders/criteria, gender identity disorders

Answer 105

Unhappy with own gender

Answer 106

Societal Expectations

Answer 107

Beliefs about differences in behaviours, abilities, traits

Answer 108

Begins gender typed preference (toys, friends)

Answer 109

Knows own gender, preference to friends of own sex/toys, ability to assign gender though limited (external)

Answer 110

Knows of gender constancy (does not change if external characteristics change)

Answer 111

Compared female rats with low testosterone and high testosterone exposure

Answer 112

Looked at male rats deprived of pre-natal testosterone

Answer 113

Physical Aggression

Answer 114

Relational Aggression

Answer 115

Broca, Wernicke

Answer 116

Spatial ability, flunctuations in menstrual cycle

Answer 117

Adrenal glands produce too much testerosterone (girls will resemble boys)

Answer 118

Proposes that men and women have evolved to behave differently depending on their roles in society

Answer 119

Children performance highest when a game is labelled gender appropriate, lowest when game is labelled gender-inappropriate

Answer 120

Examined mothers, fathers communications to sons and daughters 2 -4 years on playground - Sons recieved more directives, fewer explainations, more physical pressures than girls

Answer 121

Mothers of young infants introduced to 6 month old infant and asked to play, gender label was manipulated Participants behaved differently according to assigned gender label - Even when there are no differences in appearance or outward behavior, parents treat children according to gender label

Answer 122

Parents who do not subscribe to gender differences in socialization have children whose attitudes and behaviors reflect fewer gender stereotypes

Answer 123

2/3 years, non representative

Answer 124

- First attempts at human figure drawings - 3/4 years (can vary) - Tadpole Drawings - Circle/ellipse representing head 2/4 protruding lines representing limbs

Answer 125

- 5/6 years - Children develop a "schema" - Separate trunk from head - Initially omit or misplace arms Later on in schematic stage = - Substance added to limbs - Arms correctly placed - Detail (clothing, glasses, ears, etc.…) - Emergence of neck representation (last)

Answer 126

- From around 9 years - Marks end of art as a spontaneous activity - More detail - Varying expressions - Better use of space - Use profile

Answer 127

- Art is something to be done or left alone (hobby or interest or just left it alone)

Answer 128

- Draw a person test (self, mother, father), based on how you draw you get a score (the better, more representative the drawing the higher the score which will be used to prorate intelligence) - Controversial because people do not consider it specific enough - One of top 10 tests used by US psychologists - Research suggests that the test can differentiate between groups but isn't good at identifying individual cases needing special help

Answer 129

Assessing exposure to pesticides in preschool children from Mexico

Answer 130

Otago university study determining intelligence based on drawings

Answer 131

Had Autism, low IQ but loved drawing

Answer 132

- Draw a family test, Kinetic family drawing (draw your family doing something), house-tree-person test - Interpreted in the context of psychoanalytic therapy - No studies have shown ability of raters to differentiate between drawings of well-adjusted children and those who are not well-adjusted

Answer 133

- Difficulties in diagnosing sexual abuse in children led to clinicians seeking a non verbal measure of choice (because children don't disclose it) - Suggestions that drawings may differ according to abuse history (e.g. sexual content, shading = a lot means concern) - Researchers have yet to find a consistent pattern of graphic indicators that can distinguish the drawings of abused children from those of their non abused counterparts

Answer 134

- Helping children to talk about the past - Content of drawing not relevant (legal setting, clinical setting) - Historically used in clinical settings, despite an absence of empirical evidence (face value, look like/seem like they will work but scientifically proven against)

Answer 135

5 and 6 year old children visited fire station (event, what we know happened), interviewed a day later, with 2 manipulated variable: - Type of interview = tell (half of sample) or draw (and tell) other half of sample - Measured variables = 1. amount recalled 2. errors in recall, more effective when drawing (in direct recalling, no difference in free recall) - Children in draw and tell recalled twice as much information, no difference in free recall phase - Information reported by draw and tell just as accurate as tell group

Answer 136

1. Emotionally laden events (Gross and Hayne, 1998, Patterson and Hayne 2011) 2. Children as young as 3 and as old as 12 (Gross and Hayne, 1998, Patterson and Hayne, 2011) 3. Delays of up to one year (Gross and Hayne 1999) 4. Real clinical settings (Drucker et al 1997)

Answer 137

- Increases the length of interview, probably say more - Reduces social barrier - Children provide their own retrieval cues (remind you of other things) - Reinstates mental context (take back to situation) - Affect interviewer's behavior, interviewer more comfortable with silence instead of constantly asking questions

Answer 138

- Sexual abuse is difficult to detect and prosecute - Children unwilling to disclose abuse, reluctant, often long after it has happened (because of not understanding what is was and why it shouldn't happen, threatened), around 10% are actually disclosed within reasonable time frame - Most cases are historical and revealed by adults - Medical/physical evidence rarely present (if delay in reveal, evidence long gone) - Absence of eyewitnesses (closed doors), tend to rely on complainer v accused - Testimonies - Child witness controversy

Answer 139

Looked at infants' memories/recognition of mom's voice based on sucking pattern, infants would change sucking pattern to hear mom's voice, prefers mom's voice

Answer 140

1. short duration, if delay was too long will forget, context dependence 2. Context dependence, if context was changed even a little, remembering won't happen, as we get older begin to generalized 3. Language competence, children are limited by unable to express 4. Knowledge based, difficult to remember if we do not have anything to relate it to

Answer 141

Memory research, come to baby's house, set up crib with mobile above crib, tie ribbon around infant's foot, children learn the more they kick the more mobile moves, removed ribbon to see kicking rate

Answer 142

- Free Recall accounts are highly accurate but brief (tell me everything you can recall) - As questions become more specific, children give more detail but also make more errors - As details become increasingly specific, accuracy decreases

Answer 143

- Degree in which one's memory/recounting of an event is influenced by suggested information/misinformation - Socially driven suggestibility = accept a suggestion given by interviewer, know that they gave a wrong response because felt pressured to give it - Can lead to change in memory, believe suggested information - When believe in suggested suggestion = cognitively driven suggestibility - Children more likely to have socially driven suggestibility due to authority figures, though adults also suggestible, generally varies among children

Answer 144

1. Lack of legal knowledge - Knowledge of vocabulary (law is old language) - Knowledge of procedure (when you ask children a lot of child witnesses assume if they don't know the answer they will go to jail etc.) 2. Confronting the accused - Can make children less likely to incriminate (vase) - Effects likely to increase when children have been threatened before 3. Courtroom environment - Formal, old fashioned, intimidating - Large group of strangers - Elevation of judge - Isolation in witness, along far away from everyone - Formal Attire 4. Cross Examination - Child is questioned by opposing lawyer - Aim is to discredit testimony - A "how not to" guide to interviewing children - Questions often leading, complex, confusing, challenging to credibility - Most children change at least one part of their testimony In lab, cross examination style is detrimental to accuracy, chan

Answer 145

1. In courtroom with screen shielding witness from accused (so accused can't make contact with children) -> older children 2. Testifying from another room in courthouse via CCTV (younger children) 3. Via pre-recorded videotape (can now be used as evidence when interviewed by police) 4. Judge no longer warns jury that children are prone to distortion of facts - Cross examination still occurs live, with screen, TV, but still happens, decrease accuracy

Answer 146

- Up to 65% of preschool children have imaginary friends (if did not include soft toys, likely 30%)

Answer 147

- ICs tends to be more common in girls than boys (gender development, girls tend to be more nurturing) - Boys and girls have different types of ICs (boys have more competent ICs, girls have ICs less competent than them)

Answer 148

- Average age of appearance of an IC is between 2 and 4 years (appearance)

Answer 149

- It wasn't until late 1800s that IC emerged in psychological literature - From 1930s, parents were informed that IC were not to be encouraged, negative

Answer 150

- Wrote to help parents - First 50 years was second highest selling book in the world - Urged parents to supply more hugging, piggy back rides if IC emerged - If IC persisted after age 4, parents were told to consult a mental health profession to find out what is lacking.

Answer 151

- Examined IC of 3 to 12 year old children (3 year old able to verbally communicate) - Most IC are children - Around 16% of IC are based on real people - Many IC have magical powers/unusual physical traits - Some IC are animals and animals can usually talk/have a way of communicating - Not all IC are friendly, around 3% are enemies

Answer 152

- IC act as scapegoats or protectors, arguments to do something - IC help children to overcome fears or anxieties - IC are intermediate steps to controlling one's own behavior - IC are developed as surrogate for real friends/playmates/siblings Overall, most evidence supports a compensatory theory of IC development (first born children, single sibling) For the majority of children, IC provide fun and companion

Answer 153

- Not generally a reliable source of information - Large discrepancies found between parent and children accounts of IC - Parents don't know many details - Parents might be good at supplying information that child omits

Answer 154

- Historically, IC were viewed as a personality deficit (e.g. Multiple Personality Disorder) - Based on case studies (linking) - Failure to compare with children who did not have IC - Recruited children who had behavioral and emotional problems

Answer 155

Are better at communicating with adults (Parents rank how well child able to communicate with adults, link with existence of IC

Answer 156

Score more highly on verbal tests

Answer 157

- Have a more developed theory of mind at age 4 (Taylor and Carlson, 1997), as children get older, more likely for IC to have differences in personality, interests

Answer 158

- Not spoken about - Replaced by a new IC - Child acquires more real friends - Child loses interests - Parents take control - Gradually vanish

Answer 159

- New Zealand Sample (Dunedin Longitudal Study) - Assessed between 18 months (90%) and 7 (43%) - Object attachment peak around 2 years

Answer 160

- New Zealand Sample (Dunedin Longitudal Study) - Assessed between 18 months (90%) and 7 (43%) - Object attachment peak around 2 years

Answer 161

Proposals include: - Attachments objects as transitional objects - Attachment objects as easing the passage between sleep and waking - Attachment objects as substitutes for a primary caregiver in some situations

Answer 162

OA reduces stress

Answer 163

Facilitate exploration

Answer 164

- Children watch an average of 5.11 hours of TV per day - When asked to choose between watching TV and spending time with their fathers, 54% of 4 to 6 years old choose TV - The average American child spends 900 hours per year at school and 1200 hours per year watching TV

Answer 165

- 64% o children aged 5 to 14 watch more than 2 hours of TV per day - 35% of secondary school students watch TV for more than 3 hours per day

Answer 166

- First evaluation of Sesame Street - 950 (N) 3 to 5 year olds - From 5 cities in the US - Focused on alphabet and writing skills, measured before and after a 26 week season of Sesame Street

Answer 167

- No difference in children's score as a function of viewing frequency prior to watching Sesame Street. - Children from all groups increased in skill - Children who watched the most exhibited the biggest gains in the test - Children fromRes disadvantaged backgrounds watched Sesame Street as much and learned as much as children from advantaged backgrounds. - In fact, children from low SES showed the biggest gains. - Children learned even when they watched Sesame Street alone.

Answer 168

- Televsion watching in infancy delays development - Television mesmeries children - Children are over-stimulated by television leading to hyperactivity (television shows with high rates of changing frames contributed to children being more hyperactive after watching it. - TV displacing other valuable cognitive activities such as homework (there are no studies supporting this) - Television viewing decreases children's reading achievement (tends to wash out after as they grow it) - Television viewing disrupts children's sleep (blue light) - Biggest concern: television violence has a negative effect on children and adolescents - By the end of childhood a child would have seen 200,000 violent acts on TV, by 11 would have witnessed 8000 murders and over 10,000 other acts of violence, mostly prepertrated by the heroes

Answer 169

- 52 children, mean age of 7.75 years - 2 groups: power rangers (22 minutes, 140 agression acts, control condition) - Each child observed for a 2 minute period - Number of aggressive acts recorded by trained observer (blind) - Boy committed more aggressive acts than girls - Those watching Power Rangers committed 7 aggressive acts for every aggressive act committed by a control child, boys are more affected than girls

Answer 170

- 198 8 year old boys and parents - Assessed preference for violent TV (does your child like aggressive TV) - Re-interviewed boys at age 30 years - Accessed criminal justice records for all boys - Rated severity of criminal offences (violence offenses rated higher) - Boys who exhibited a higher preference for violent TV at age 8 had committed more serious crimes by the age of 30 years than boys hwo showed a lower preference.

Answer 171

- 198 8 year old boys and parents - Assessed preference for violent TV (does your child like aggressive TV) - Re-interviewed boys at age 30 years - Accessed criminal justice records for all boys - Rated severity of criminal offences (violence offenses rated higher) - Boys who exhibited a higher preference for violent TV at age 8 had committed more serious crimes by the age of 30 years than boys hwo showed a lower preference.

Answer 172

- From childhood into adolscene, the average time spent playing videogames per week is 5.5 hours for girls and 13 hours for boys - 20% of male secondary students play videogames for more than 3 hours per day compared to 5% for females - Several companies are now designing videogame consoles for preschoolers - Preschoolers aged 2 to 5 years play for an average of 28 minutes per day - The amount of time spent playing video games is increasing but television watching remains stable

Answer 173

- Can be therapeutic and or educational for children with chronic illness (feel like they are winning) - May improve fine motor skills and coordination - May distract children from physical and emotional pain - May improve decision making and plasticity (complicated games) - May foster persistence, resilience, prosocial behaviour

Answer 174

Experiment 1: - 227 University Undergraduates - Measures (Aggressive Personality Questionnaire, agree/disagree APQ, Delinquency, violent/non violent, Videogame use - 91% reported videogame use (M = 2.14 hours week) - Videogame use correlated with aggresive personality, non-agrresive delinquency, aggressive delinquency

Answer 175

Experiment 2: - 210 University undergraduates - Aggressive Personality Questionnaire Assigned to one of two groups matched for aggressive personality: - Group 1 played Myst (nonviolent) - Group 2 played Wolfenstein (violent) - 3 x 15-minute sessions of play - Competitive Reaction Task Overall: - Women delivered longer blasts than men - Individuals with high scores on the APQ delivered longer blasts than those with low APQ scores - Individuals who played the violent videogame delivered longer blasts than those who played the non-violent videogame - This effect occurred even when other variables (e.g., gender, APQ score) were controlled for.

Answer 176

4 levels of analysis: 1. Intra-personal level - Based on what goes on inside the person. 2. Inter-personal level - Interactions between 2 people 3. Inter-group level - Based on group behaviours 4. Societal level - Cultural effects on behaviour

Answer 177

- Contains most basic urges (i.e., eat, drink, rest, seek comfort, warmth, and eliminate). - Works on the basis of the need/demand to gain sexual pleasure. - Works on the pleasure principle - demands satisfaction now not later, - regardless of consequences. - People want sexual gratification immediately.

Answer 178

- Tries to satisfy the id pragmatically in accordance with societal norms.

Answer 179

- Represents internalized rules of parents and society. - If rules are broken the superego metes out punishment. - This leads to intense anxiety, guilt and self-reproach. - The demands of the superego are powerful and unyielding. - If met (and anxiety avoided) the impulses of the id must be repressed. Id impulses will not remain repressed, but will always reappear. - Other outlets, however, are always found (that allows you to experience ID without feeling guilt, rechannel drive into more socially acceptable direction) - As impulses re-emerge so to does intense anxiety. - Consequently, defence mechanisms brought into play…

Answer 180

Displacement: impulses redirected into a safer course (going to the gym, jogging, in order to direct sexual impulses) Reaction formation: original wish is supplanted with the opposite (people have a wish/desire but they feel guilt over, so they switch the desire by pretending to hate it, e.g. homophobic men feel guilt over desire for homosexual relationship, so redirect desire into hatred/homophobia) Projection: urges are projected onto others (urges are projected onto others) Isolation: awareness of memories but not emotions, isolate yourself from the trauma, after surviving trauma, people are able to rationize events, people able to survive to an extent with using defense mechanisms.

Answer 181

Displacement: impulses redirected into a safer course (going to the gym, jogging, in order to direct sexual impulses) Reaction formation: original wish is supplanted with the opposite (people have a wish/desire but they feel guilt over, so they switch the desire by pretending to hate it, e.g. homophobic men feel guilt over desire for homosexual relationship, so redirect desire into hatred/homophobia) Projection: urges are projected onto others (urges are projected onto others) Isolation: awareness of memories but not emotions, isolate yourself from the trauma, after surviving trauma, people are able to rationize events, people able to survive to an extent with using defense mechanisms.

Answer 182

1. 0-2 2. 2-4 3. 4-6 5. 6-12 6. 12+

Answer 183

Boys develop an Oedipus complex. - Boy wants to sexually possess the mother - hates father. - Fears that the father may find out and castrate him. - This leads to CASTRATION ANXIETY - When seeing a female, boy exhibits fear as they think the girls have been castrated. - Boy starts to identify with father (will eventually grow up and meet a sexual partner) - The problem is resolved when the boy decides to give up desires for his mother. - Boy identifies with the father, in the hope that he too will some day enjoy an erotic partner like his mother. Girl develops Electra complex: - Realizes that she does not have a penis -- which she regards as a catastrophe. - Feels that she has been castrated already, develops ‘Penis Envy’. - Turns to her father who has the desirable organ in the hope that he will give her a penis substitute in the form of a baby. - She turns her sexual attention to father - hates mother, develops anxiety over her desires, resolves this by identifying with her mother. - Vulva envy = wetting bed - Young boys are jealous of young women menstrating (symbolic menstrating by wetting bed)

Answer 184

- Oral stage: oral fixation, smoking, thumb sucking, drinking - Anal stage: anal retentiveness (stubborn, won't give up things), won’t spend money, obstinate, likes painting. - Phallic stage: castration anxiety can lead to boy becoming gay

Answer 185

1. Never actually studied children (based on letters sent through by parents) 2. Ideas not falsifiable (right either way, bad science) 3. Little experimental evidence to support ideas. Experimental evidence 1. Data more appropriately explained through other processes. 2. Experiments supporting Freud’s claims are often flawed.

Answer 186

- Evidence suggests that authoritarian aggression is not caused by the redirection of repressed impulses but by observational learning - E.g., Bandura, 1965 - Bobo doll study showed that aggression was a consequence of imitation and learning, aggression = not redirected aggression, but learned Flawed experiments: - Freud claimed that threatening stimuli is repressed (defense mechanism) - Bruner and Postman presented threatening (e.g., sex, fuck & penis) and non-threatening words (e.g., six, brick & tennis) by means of tachistoscope (submarine parascope, words are flashed really fast, when you see the words you say them), took people longer to say words non-threatening words. - They found that threatening words took longer to report. = Supports the idea of repression.

Answer 187

An attitude “is a positive or negative reaction towards a stimulus, such as a person, action, object or concept” Behaviour: Expressed contempt/positive emotions

Answer 188

Attitudes comprised of 3 components : 1. Cognitive 2. Affective 3. Behavioural

Answer 189

Likert scales depend on honesty, sometimes people do not tell the truth or give socially desirable answers.

Answer 190

The bogus pipeline: - Participants are hooked up to an impressive looking apparatus, and then told that it measures minute changes in their muscles. - People assume the apparatus is real. - If respondents believe that the apparatus assesses their true opinions then there is little point in lying - or giving socially desirable responses. Electromyography (EMG) measures activity of facial muscles - Similar to bogus pipeline but effective - When people experience emotion such as happiness or sadness different facial muscles move. - Measured attitudes then presented videos which either supported or disagreed with these attitudes. - Muscles associated with happiness moved when the video supported attitudes. - Muscles associated with anger moved when the video disagreed with attitudes.

Answer 191

- He investigated the relation between racist attitudes and behaviour. - Toured with Chinese couple and stopped at over 50 hotels and 200 restaurants. - Only one hotel refused service. - LaPiere wrote to each establishment asking if a Chinese couple would be accommodated - 92% said NO (although they said they wouldn't, almost all did, expressed racist attitude but didn't show racist behaviour) - Subsequence research showed theory of planned behaviour.

Answer 192

1. When we have a positive attitude towards the behaviour. 2. When norms support our attitudes. 3. When the behaviour is under our control.

Answer 193

Blood donation, exercise regularly, drive safely

Answer 194

A 15-year study found that attitudes to capital punishment did not change (from the 90s to now).

Answer 195

A lot of people lost confidence in the government, attitudes towards Americans became less favourable

Answer 196

Cognitive Dissonance

Answer 197

- They asked people to estimate the chances of winning a bet. - Those who had placed bets were much more confident of winning

Answer 198

If the source is: Credible, Trustworthy, Attractive and likeable If the message is presented: Quickly, long and without hesitation If we are approached: On sunny days or when we are happy.

Answer 199

1. The message evokes moderate to strong fear 2. The message provides a feasible (low cost) way to reduce the threat However can backfire (cause reverse/young men to drive faster after watching videos attempting to sway against driving fast, dangers of driving fast)

Answer 200

Role of fear in persuation

Answer 201

Sought to prevent teenagers from smoking, taught arguments such as “I’d be real chicken if I smoked just to impress you” -> teenagers trained in this way were less likely to smoke

Answer 202

Internal/external Western societies = Fundamental Attribution Error (tend to locate cause of behaviour inside them)

Answer 203

Found that following accidents, individuals who thought that they were in some way to 'blame’ spent 30 days in hospital. - Those who thought they were not to ‘ blame’ spent 20 days in hospital

Answer 204

1. Men who explained negative events through reference to their own internal, stable, pervasive characteristics tended to have significantly poorer health between the ages of 45 and 60 (i.e., 25 years after the events took place). 2. How we interpret events in our early adult life can affect us later 3. Pessimists more prone to depression, believe they can't change 4. Children who are taught to be optimists less likely to be depressed later on in life

Answer 205

1.If we behave positively or successfully and then attribute this to our own internal, qualities we can achieve and maintain self-esteem. 2. If we behave negatively or fail in some way and then we attribute this to the same internal, qualities, then we can suffer a decrease in self-esteem.

Answer 206

Victim Blame Rape - AIDS victims - Cancer patients People derogate victims of negative events - Stanford Prisoner Experiment - Nazi's justification of murder of Jewish people - Doing this justifies the bad actions which allow the people to have a sense of control (justifying that they are not bad people by placing blame)

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- Focuses on the criteria by which individuals analyse information and come to make an attribution. - Major theories: 1. ‘Correspondence Inference’ 2. 'Covariation and Configuration’ People are very logical, scientific in how they make attributions (will try to work out information) When making an attribution, Kelley (1967), claims that information can be derived from sources indicating: 1. If Mr Brown is always hostile to you (consistency) 2. If other people are normally hostile to you (consensus) 3. If Mr Brown tends to be hostile to other people (distinctiveness)

Answer 208

A correspondent inference, sometimes also called a correspondent trait inference, is a judgment that a person's personality matches or corresponds to his or her behavior.

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Covariance indicates the relationship of two variables whenever one variable changes. If an increase in one variable results in an increase in the other variable, both variables are said to have a positive covariance.

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1. If Mr Brown is always hostile to you (consistency) 2. If other people are normally hostile to you (consensus) 3. If Mr Brown tends to be hostile to other people (distinctiveness)

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- Deals with face to face attributions. - Attributions: no longer seen as rational. - Two major types of effect: 1. ‘Actor Observer Effect’ 2. ‘Self-Serving Bia's

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- People tend to attribute the cause of their own actions to EXTERNAL factors - They tend to attribute the cause of others actions to INTERNAL causes.

Answer 213

- People take credit for their successes but not for their failures

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- Attributions at this level examine the way in which the members of different groups explain behaviour. - Hunter, et al. 1991, 1994 looked at how Catholics and Protestants explained instances of Catholic and Protestant violence.

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A study by Miller (1984). - Shows that while individuals from Western cultures favour dispositional explanations individuals from Non-Western cultures tend to favour environmental explanations - US vs India, lawyer driving on motorbike, hit someone and drives off (US, UK, NZ more likely to internally attribute, India more likely to say he had to go work, responsibilities to clients and families, jobs, external circumstances) - Boys more likely to externally attribute for negatives, internally attribute for positives - Girls are opposite

Answer 216

Australian sample found that 83% of people met their ‘special partner’ in a familiar social setting, 6% in a casual social setting.

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- Repeated exposure to any stimulus makes it more appealing. - The more people are exposed to faces, photos, languages and tunes the more they like them.

Answer 218

People tended to make friends with those whom they were seated beside alphabetically.

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Claimed that if it was merely repeated exposure to a stimulus that enhanced our liking then we should prefer photos of our facial images as we see them in a mirror (ie. a reversed photo image). - Our friends, however, should prefer a normal photo of our faces (since this, image is the one that they normally see). - Results support this view, 70% of people prefer a photo of their own reversed mirror image, 70% of people, however, prefer the normal photo image of their friends.

Answer 220

- Personality differences, conflict of interests, negative interaction, value differences, status differentials can all lead to antagonism (dislike you more if you're constantly there). - If the initial interaction is negative and this experience is reinforced then dislike will occur

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People who are emotionally aroused (higher heart rate) rate others as more attractive. - White et al. (1981) found that men who ran on the spot rated women as being more attractive. - Dutton & Aaron (1974) people expecting electric shocks rated members of the opposite sex as being more attractive.

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- Men asked to complete an ambiguous story about a woman, then invited to phone up if they wanted to know more about the study. - Those who crossed the deep ravine on the narrow rope bridge were more likely to phone up and ask for a date.

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ound that out of 32 desirable traits for a partner men ranked physical appearance 12th , women ranked it 22nd .

Answer 224

ound that out of 32 desirable traits for a partner men ranked physical appearance 12th , women ranked it 22nd .

Answer 225

Analysed computer dating services, which used photo matching. For both sexes physical attractiveness was the major determining factor of date choice.

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- Tests measuring scholastic ability, personality and attitudes were presented to all. - People rated for attractiveness by independent observers (on arrival). - The results showed that the more attractive you were rated by the observers the more you were liked by your date

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90% of men when approached by an attractive woman would agree to sex, only 10% of women when approached by an attractive man would agree to sex

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tudied decision making process in casualty wards when people were brought in D.O.A

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Fat and diseased babies by western standards are considered beautiful in different cultures. The Ainu of Japan, Chukchi of Siberia, Thonga of Mozambique.

Answer 230

Best friends at high school resemble each other in terms of age, race and academic grades.

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arried couples who shared the same egalitarian or religious beliefs were a lot happier.

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- How the physical presence of others influences our behaviour. - We are more likely to laugh if others laugh the larger the crowd the more we eat - Cockroaches run faster in the presence of other cockroaches - People cycle faster when others are present (Triplet)

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- Respondents completed simple and complex tasks. - When others present: simple task ability improved (typing name in keyboard), complex task ability (type name backwards) decreased.

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- Drive Theory of Facilitation -> The presence of others leads to increased arousal. - Arousal strengthens the display of our dominant response. - Our performance is enhanced if our dominant response is appropriate

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- The accuracy of good players increased from 71% to 80%. - The accuracy of poor players decreased from 35% to 25%

Answer 236

– the idea that as group size increases individual responsibility decreases (the more people there are, the less someone will take responsibility) - Participants come along and sit in a waiting room on the pretext of taking part in a laboratory experiment. - Smoke came out of a vent, 75% of those waiting alone reacted immediately, less than 1% of those waiting with others reacted. (people unsure of situation, ambiguous, people assume if other people aren't doing anything, it's alright) - If you need help and you let people know, people in those situations will intervene (it has to be clear)

Answer 237

- Presence of other people can have bizarre or negative effects. - Mann (1981) discusses instances were a potential suicide victim is abused and taunted - When people are surrounded by others they lose self-awareness and begin to feel anonymous - When aroused the loss in self-awareness works to disinhibit those impulses which are normally kept under check - The impulses that are released depend on the situation thus masked revellers at a party may drink too much, members of a lynch mob may torture and kill

Answer 238

Halloween study 34% took extra sweets only 12% of those presented with mirror took extra sweets.

Answer 239

1. Brought 10-12 people into lab. 2. Showed pairs of cards (6’ long, and 4’, 6’, & 8’ long). 3. Respondents to guess which were of equal size. 4. Preferences given out loud. 5. Only 1 person bonafede the rest were confederates of the experimenter. 6. Confederates gave answers 1st & consistently gave incorrect answers 7. Results showed that 75% went along with majority. 8. Control participants did not make any mistakes.

Answer 240

- College recruited students from conservative background. - Initially the students themselves were very conservative but by the time they left university they had adapted to the liberal ethos of the college.

Answer 241

- Zimbardo in the Stanford Prison experiment – got students to take on the roles of guards and prisoners in a 2-week experiment. - Guards became assertive, dominant supportive of one another regardless of brutality. - Prisoners became obedient, cowed, judged guards to be larger. - Study had to be stopped after 6 days.

Answer 242

Conducted a prison study in Australia under democratic, participatory, or authoritarian conditions In democratic + participatory = prison regime was benign, tolerant In authoritarian = guards were toxic

Answer 243

There were no scripts of terror, study was overseen by ethics committee Guards = disillusioned, prisoners = efficacy

Answer 244

Obedience increased

Answer 245

- A personality type – overly deferential to those in authority whilst hostile towards those perceived as inferior (overly submissive to those superior, but be extremely hostile towards those inferior, black and white, no gray, white middle class, did not like people who are different but does not question authority) - Associated with a very conventional value system in which ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ are clear and distinct. - Minority groups are openly derogated - Working from a Freudian perspective Adorno et al., claimed that the Authoritarian Personality was derived from childhood. - Harsh, demanding, parents stifled child’s basic instincts Child’s aggression then displaced onto others such as ethnic minorities, working class, communist

Answer 246

- Attitudes reflect the objective interests of the ingroup. Two implicit assumptions: - If the interests of two groups coincide, then relations between groups will be harmonious. - If there is a conflict of interests between two groups then relations between groups will be hostile - Competition = prejudice against group, support for own group - Prejudice only occurs when there is competition (job competition, etc…)

Answer 247

- Adults in camp were trained researchers. - Boys aged 12, all from white MC homes - All screened before study. - Only those from stable homes admitted. - Thus - effects could not be attributed to social or psychological deprivation. - Did well in school, well socially adjusted

Answer 248

Minimal group paradigm is a social psychology research methodology that proposes that the minimal condition for group biases (like favoritism towards your own group and prejudice towards other groups) is simply being a member of a group.

Answer 249

MGP - a scientific attempt to create an 'empty environment’ where researchers could then systematically add variables that would elicit discrimination. To ensure that none of the other factors which influence prejudice would impinge upon the experimental conditions

Answer 250

Group membership was assigned arbitrarily e.g. letters out of a can or box (Klee/Kadinsky) No info given about the personal characteristics of recipients: 1. Code numbers and group membership labels were used to designate ingroup and outgroup members. 2. To guard against self-interest, respondents were denied the opportunity of allocating resources to themselves. Top - Member 72 of A group Bottom - Member 73 of B group