PSYC4191 Weekly Quiz

Question 1

Under what circumstances did Morris et al. (2005) find that the imagery method of remembering names did not work – and why?

Answer 1

• Morris et al. (2005) find that the imagery method of remembering names did not work under parity conditions (where it was hard to construct these images), Morris et al. (2005) found better memory was found with expanded retrieval (try and recall the name at increasing intervals, without imagery = 24 names) than the imagery method (12 names) (where a no strategy control was 16 names).
• It did not work because it requires a lot of memory stimulation for the participants to be thinking about the word and associate it with a picture. As a result it becomes effortful.

Question 2

Describe the method of remembering names (with your own example) that was demonstrated by Morris et al. (1978) to lead to 80% correct recall.

Answer 2

Step 1: Search for an imageable substitute for the person’s name. Angelina = Angry+ Lina (or Anger + Lina).
Step 2: Select some prominent feature of the person’s face – and link that feature with the name substitute (e.g. Anger lina had a fight with her neighbours). • This method led to 80% recall (Morris et al., 1978).

Question 3

What are the limitations of the Pegword system?

Answer 3

• You need to put in a lot of work to remember the pegwords reliably enough. • Also – it’s harder to use for abstract, hard to visualize words (“morality”) than easy to visualize words (“car”).

Question 4

How does the Pegword system compare with the Method of Loci (Wang & Thomas, 2000)?

Answer 4

The Pegword System was found to be just as effective as the Method of Loci (Wang & Thomas, 2000).

Question 5

How does the Pegword system work?

Answer 5

• The Pegword system works when you start to associate a number with a word. For instance, Step 1 – memorize the ten pegwords • Step 2 – imagine the first word interacting with “bun”; the second word interacting with “shoe”.

Question 6

What did De Beni et al (1997) find when they compared the Method of Loci with rehearsal – for both written and orally-delivered essays?

Answer 6

De Beni (1997) showed the Method of Loci was more effective than rehearsal for when a 2000 word passage was read out – but this advantage disappeared if the passage was read (perhaps the visual nature of writing interfered with visual imagery of locations). In other words, when both written and oral- delivered essays are happening both at the same time, there may be some noise interference

Question 7

What did Bower (1973) find regarding when the Method of Loci was compared to a no-strategy control?

Answer 7

Bower (1973, cited in Baddeley et al., 2015) asked participants to remember 100 words. When they used the Method of Loci, they remembered 72% of the words – but only 28% when they didn’t.

Question 8

What did Massen et al. (2009) find were the best locations to use in the Method of Loci?

Answer 8

Massen et al. (2009) found that a route to work was found to be better than locations around the home, perhaps because the order of locations is more defined.

Question 9

What is the Method of Loci and how do you implement it?

Answer 9

Feng Wang’s “memory palace” is an implementation of the Method of Loci. This involves imagining the items to be remembered in specific locations along a familiar route. I would use the rooms in their own homes as locations – and imagine walking in a set route between those rooms, looking at what has been “placed” in each room.

Question 10

What was memory champion Feng Wang’s method for learning 300 random digits?

Answer 10

• He did this by associating each number from 00 to 99 with an image. • He then constructed a “memory palace” – an imagined mansion with many locations. • Each set of 4 numbers was therefore encoded as 2 images, which were stored in one location in the memory palace (e.g. 6389 – 63 = banana; 89 = monk. Imagine monk splitting banana in a pot (location along his mental route through his palace)

Question 11

What did Rubin and Kontis (1983) discover using US coins – and what implications does this have?

Answer 11

Rubin and Kontis (1983) discovered using US coins that simple repeated exposure to this thing over and over again. Participants assumed that if they see the coins often enough, they are more likely to remember it but on average people are only remembering about on average 28%. Simple repetition assuming that there is no one making the effort to actually structured what they are learning then it is simply not effective. This effect gets more impressive and complicated as the information gets. People remember less complicated than it is. By looking and using the coins daily, people are unable to remember any of the details.
- Experience does not lead to expertise. Familiarity with the coin does not mean that you are more likely to remember. People got terrible insight to what they know when they are being asked to recall the items that they remember.

Question 12

To what extent does repetitive exposure lead to learning?

Answer 12

Through repetitive exposure, it does not lead people into remembering even if it is something like currency, people would literally see it every day and not be familiar with it for their whole entire life.

Question 13

What’s the generation effect?

Answer 13

The generation effect refers to which information is more likely to be remembered if it’s generated by the learner rather than just presented to the learner

Question 14

What was the most popular method of study, according to Karpicke et al.’s (2009) study?

Answer 14

According to Karpicke et al.’s (2009) study, the most popular method of study is that 57% of the students prefer to re-study the same source over and over again which is the least effective study strategy.

Question 15

How is the testing effect thought to work?

Answer 15

• The testing effect thought to work by actively retrieving things in your brain that makes you feel hurt which set these memory structure and representation that allows it to be slot into your knowledge. Once you got that retrieval structure, it makes it way easier to access that information because it is your long term memory.

Question 16

What is the testing effect?

Answer 16

• Testing effect refers to the general finding that long-term memory is improved when the information is retrieved (e.g. tested in a recall quiz).

Question 17

39. Describe the 4-condition experiment by Karpicke & Roediger (2008), comparing testing and presentation methods of learning (methods, results).

Answer 17

Karpicke and Roediger (2008) compared four combinations of testing and presentation (see figure) for foreign language vocabulary (Swahili). In the first condition, participants were continued to test & present all the test items. In the second condition, participants were dropped an item correct and managed to recall 90% of the content then they were continued to be tested on those incorrect items. While in the third condition, participants were given repeated presentation of the items but without the testing. In the last condition, participants were dropped with correct items but they were not tested. Findings revealed that during the learning phase when participant were using different words to study their cumulative proportion of recall gets better across all four trials.
A week later, when the participants were tested for recall, those who were in the S_T and S_{n\ }T condition, they remembered 80% of the Swahili words that were tested in psychology experiment. While those who were in the group that involved testing were much better after a week (no advantage to drop successfully learned words to allow more time on unlearned words.)

Question 18

What did Pashler et al. (2007) find when comparing a test trial with feedback with an extra learning trial?

Answer 18

Pashler et al. (2007) found that when comparing an extra test trial with feedback was better than an extra learning trial for remembering something.

Question 19

Give three reasons why students might prefer repeated study strategies over repeated testing strategies

Answer 19

• Students noticed 5 mins benefit of repeated study
• Roediger & Karprike (2006) found that participants would incorrectly thought they would remember more than one week when the results will be replicated later.
• Students prefer repeated study strategies because it is less effortful

Question 20

Describe the 3-condition testing effect experiment conducted by Roediger & Karpicke (2006) (methods, results, conclusions).

Answer 20

• Roediger & Karpicke (2006) told their subjects to memories a bit of text from three passages. They were split into three different conditions where in the first condition participants were told to read this passage four times (SSSS). While, in the second condition subjects were told to read the text three times and test on the content of the passage once (SSST). In the last condition, subjects were told to read the text once and do recall test three times (STTT). It was found that subjects who were tested for recall in the (STTT) condition had remembered less after five minutes unlike those who were in the (SSSS) had recalled the most. But after one week later, those subjects who were in the (STTT) remembered the most recall than other condition. This shows that there is an increased in retention which is crucial to massive advantage of recall for testing compared to rereading. Although repeated study was best part after 5 mins of learning, repeated testing after a week increases more than 50% of the memory retention despite the thing has been replicated massively.

Question 21

What does the phrase “desirable difficulties” refer to (Bjork & Bjork, 1992)?

Answer 21

• The phrase “desirable difficulties” refer to (Bjork & Bjork, 1992) is to think a lot which makes your brain to be effortful in retrieving new information so that you will remember it much faster.

Question 22

What is the key problem with students’ tendency to use less effortful study strategies ?

Answer 22

• The key problem with students’ tendency to use less effortful study strategies is that people have terrible self-insight regarding their actual learning. When people are asked to sit and study the thing, then ask how much they remember while studying. Most people are pretty bad at estimating when they are not good at learning well.
• Students tend to study the lecture slide over and over again with a more passive and less effortful strategy of learning. When they are asked how much they remembered, most of them have poor memory in what they have learnt. Hence, it is considered to less effortful study strategies.

Question 23

Describe three strategies that may help students understand complex content.

Answer 23

• The first strategy to help students to understand complex content is to start by introducing shallow knowledge then incrementally increased the information to a deep knowledge.
• The second strategy will be to help students to understand complex abstract ideas by providing them with one or more concrete examples. By giving more concrete examples, students are able to draw connection between those concrete examples and derive the more abstract examples from them with a more familiar concrete example from prior knowledge.
• A third strategy is to get students to generate questions about content because this has also been found to aid understanding. For example, Rosenshine et al. (1996) found, in a meta-analysis, that creating questions about a text improved reading comprehension

Question 24

Why might it be the case that students have to learn shallow knowledge before they can grasp deep knowledge (Willingham, 2009)?

Answer 24

• Based on cognitive load theory, if we learn too many at once, then you are going to overload your short-term memory. All learning has to be incremental. You are trying to introduce one new thing at a time. By embedding all that new stuff into the stuff that people already know the structure begins to overlap which aids in learning. If students were to be introduce to deep knowledge with concepts, then it is likely that their memory will be overloaded. Having students to expose to deep knowledge means that they have got the underlying principles to generalize to other things. Thus, it is highly recommended that students to be taught with shallow knowledge first by explaining using the story telling principles to understand better. It allows students to tap onto something that they have already known. Then, it allows them to get that concept by creating chunks which benefits from storytelling approach. Once, they understand the complexity of the situation then it is an appropriate time to incrementally the level of information that is being delivered to the students at a much complex level.

Question 25

Why might the causal structure of stories make them easier to remember?

Answer 25

- Because stories have a causal structure so if you remember one bit of the story then you are more likely to remember what happen as a result of that. Everything can access as a memory cues for everything else.

Question 26

Kim (1999) manipulated level of inference required when reading some text. What did they find?

Answer 26

- Kim (1999) found that when participants were asked to read the story and laid out that there were no inferences and not able to read between the lines to work out what was going on. They rate the story as boring. If you have a bit of text where you had to do so much inference and reading between the lines, participants found it increasingly taxing and boring too. Therefore, Kim (1999) suggested that there should be a medium level of inference is crucial so that it fills in enough gaps to keep it interesting or not so may that they are being overloaded.

Question 27

Why are good stories easy to remember (Willingham, 2009)?

Answer 27

- Willingham (2009) explained that good stories are easy to remember because they you need to be thinking about the meaning throughout. Memory is the residue of thought that you are thinking all the way through which makes you care about the character because it is a good story. Therefore, memory is the residue of thought and the memory sticks inside your head.

Question 28

Britton et al. (1983) manipulated the form of text in a written passage and asked participants to rate how interesting the passage was. What did they find?

Answer 28

- Britton et al. (1983) found that the same written passage is written in 2 different version where one of them was using structured storytelling information techniques while the other was a structured information with straight exposition. They found that the actual information that contain both matches. People found that story to be more interesting when they were controlled by other elements of information.

Question 29

List the principles of storytelling (Willingham, 2009).

Answer 29

- Causality (joining elements with causal links instead of an unrelated list) - Conflict (some element of struggle, between characters or situations) - Complications (sufficient nuance to avoid boredom) - Character (could be conceptual, abstract, or inferred)

Question 30

What does Willingham (2009) argue that all good teachers have in common?

Answer 30

Willingham (2009) argue that all good teachers have in common is leveraging on a good story telling.

Question 31

Describe six strategies that could be used to foster the circumstances that encourage thinking in education, according to Willingham (2009).

Answer 31

1. Set up problems where you are trying to make the problem to be at the right amount of difficulty. Getting a class where you see a massive range of ability in students. Teacher should put some effort in understanding the level of ability of your student to find out what they know. They should put in effort in testing questions of tiny bit and not too much. Where do I start teaching for this class? 2. Questions drive curiosity and not answers. Lecturer should understand the thing that they do when it comes to teaching new information to students because they tend to give massive amount of information to them to remember and being tested during their final exams. The most effective way in teaching students will be to process a series of questions to let students to find out the answers by themselves. By doing this, it improves student’s comprehension and understand the stuff better by actively generating the question. 3. Avoid overloading student’s working memory. Because this does not allow students to think and process about stuff. According to cognitive load theory, the most effective way in learning is trying to not provide too much information beyond what the students already know or can handle which results in overload. As a result, they will switch off in learning. When we are trying to deliver new information to students, it should neither be moved at a slow pace because then students will find it boring nor moved at a faster pace because they will then feel that they are left behind and unable to catch up with the lecture content. 4. Time the presentation of question. Giving the question means nothing to you because you do not have enough background knowledge to that. For instance, you are being asked “tell me xx theory of xx physics & what it means for this & this where this & this is.” This question has literally mean nothing to you. With more background information of the question, you are able to answer it but for this instance you do not because it does not seem a question that serves a learning tool for you therefore it becomes an obstacle. If you post question so late, then you will miss out on chemical hit. For example, if you know the answer to the question then you are more likely to answer. 5. Accept and act on variation in student ability/preparation/prior knowledge when going through any situation or education system. If you are literally teaching 1- on-1, then you are likely to know the variation in student’s level of ability and preparation prior knowledge. Whereas, if you are teaching a class that is heterogenous where you get a variation of student’s ability. You have to think of strategies to deal with the variation. 6. Use change to regain attention. If the lesson is being taught too long, then students may start dozing off or wandering around because they do not have that long attention span. For instance, giving questions to test students in actively retrieving information from memory is one of the good ways to not only to keep them engage and regain attention in class but also boost their participation points just simply by attending classes so that they will not attempt to miss any of them.

Question 32

What does Willingham (2009) argue is the key factor influencing whether people like thinking?

Answer 32

Willingham (2009) argue that the key factor in influencing whether people like thinking is that they are able to nail that sweet spot that gives them a chemical rush.

Question 33

What happens in the brain when people solve a problem (Willingham, 2009)?

Answer 33

According to Willingham (2009), when people solve a problem, they feel physiologically good about it. This gives their brain to receive a chemical hit of dopamine which allows them to gain a sense of satisfaction with what they are doing.

Question 34

List three ways the brain minimizes how much thinking we have to do (Willingham, 2009).

Answer 34

- (1) making sure important things like vision and movement don’t require thought (2) biasing us to use memory and other shortcuts where possible - (3) by allowing us to automate processes that initially require thought so that they only require effortless memory (e.g. expertise development).

Question 35

Why don’t students like school, according to Willingham (2009)?

Answer 35

- According to Willingham (2009), students dislike school because it forces them to do a lot of thinking. Apart from very specific circumstances, people try to avoid thinking because it is effortful. Instead, we rely on memory and mental shortcuts to avoid thinking about stuff through the day.

Question 36

What is the educational implication associated with Willingham’s (2009) proposition “Memory is the residue of thought”?

Answer 36

- This is because the implication of designing or training in education is that we are trying to teach people things, relevant meaning does really matter. Willingham (2009) suggested was that teachers will do all sorts of crazy task that tries to grab the attention of their students. Students may basically remember the wrong things. For example, lecturer drags and stands in front of a grand piano in hoping to make you remember Barclay et al. (1974)’s piano experiment. What people remember is that the lecturer drags in a piano and forget what is being dragged into the room for them to remember. The context around remembering turning up in a lecture does not apply in the context of Barclay et al. (1974)’s piano experiment. In other words, if the illustration does not aid your understanding of the subject matter better thus it becomes a form of distraction. - Attention grab is sufficiently irrelevant when we are trying to help people to remember the actual content. It might be by sticking fancy pictures on your slide and make them look nice. But on the other hand of the premises when we are designing and training for education so part of the process is to actually get people to think about the content that we want them to remember. Thus, try and build that into our design.

Question 37

Describe Barclay et al.’s (1974) experiment demonstrating how things are linked with their context when encoded in memory (methods, results, conclusion).

Answer 37

- Barclay et al.’s (1974) presented their participants with sentences. For instance, the man lifted the piano. The keyword here is piano. The context is something about the piano is really heavy to be lifted. While in the second example where it says that something about the piano is a musical instrument. Later on, participants were given a recall where they were asked about their memory on the keyword “piano.” They were given a cue of something very heavy or something with a nice sound. The results suggested that it depends on whether the piano had been presented in the context of being a heavy object or whether the piano had been presented in the context of being a musical instrument. Findings revealed that people could better remember the word piano when the recall cue was relevant to the test sentence. For example, the man lifted the piano, so the cue was something heavy then you were able to better remember the word was piano than the cue word was something that has got to do with nice sound. What this suggest or argue is that when the word is being encoded in memory by looking at this original thing not just the word piano that is being encoded but it’s just the whole context for the word piano is being used whether it is something really heavy or musical. It’s not just enough to think about the meaning of the word but also the relevance of the word and context matters.

Question 38

Why is just considering any possible meaning of an item not necessarily helpful in remembering it?

Answer 38

- When the brain is processing this sort of thing in a particular context, it remembers that in the future that we might have to remember this thing. It is assuming that you have got to remember it again in the same sort of context. Hence, if you got a word that has two different meaning and processing it on one different meaning. Then, it’s that meaning that the word has been memorized in that context.

Question 39

What experiment did Hyde & Jenkins (1973) conduct regarding the semantic processing of words (methods, results, conclusions)?

Answer 39

- Hyde & Jenkins (1973) gave their participants some words. The crucial thing is that the question did differ on whether they have semantic compare or whether the questions were about semantic thing or non-semantic thing. The question requires you to process the meaning of the word or not. If the question is non-semantic “Does, the word contain a letter E?” The idea is that you do not need to process the meaning of the word in order to answer the question. If the question is semantic, “here ’s a word, “I want you to rate it out how pleasant you think it’s going to be.” To make the rating you have to think about the meaning of the word based on ESI as similar to PSYC4191 pre-presentation survey where we are being asked to rate all of the questions from the forthcoming presentation about whether you are familiar with the content or not. The same idea applies into this context where it is actively making you rate is forcing you to process the content of the presentation of the question which means it primes the questions that you go into this. You know what the questions are and need to find the answers that they are listening to. Crucially, people who are asked to rate the semantic content of the words rate pleasantness / unpleasantness basically remembered more words. By asking semantic question, people think more about the meaning of the word. Thinking leads to memory. In a way that just thinking about words and letters did not work.

Question 40

What is Willingham’s (2009) argument for why thinking about something is crucial to memorizing it?

Answer 40

- Willingham’s (2009) argument for why thinking about something is crucial to memorizing it is that we remember most what we think about. They have remembered the things they have think about, as they spend all day thinking about all these things. To think about something, it has to be your working memory. However, most things that we experience does not make it to working memory. To actually remember something, not only does it need to be sitting in your working memory, then as transfer from your working memory to long term memory. Not everything in working memory makes it to long term memory. We remember all these things is because we are thinking about it more. The stuff that you are remembering is only the stuff that has made it all the way through those filters to get it to long term memory. The key component is how much you are thinking about it.

Question 41

What does Willingham (2009) argue with regard the role of knowledge in skill acquisition?

Answer 41

Willingham (2009) argues that this does not mean we can therefore neglect knowledge as we need knowledge to carry out any skill. In a lot of domain of acquiring that knowledge poorly is most of the effort, certainly in academic domain. Knowledge is necessary, but it’s often not sufficient.

Question 42

What does Ericsson (2016) argue for the relative roles of knowledge and skill in education?

Answer 42

- Ericsson (2016) argues that our education system is basically not overly focused on sort of moving things rather than doing things. He goes on to explain that we assume the outcome measure for education should be knowledge. But the key outcome should be skill. By the end of this course, you should be able to do more than you can do that than you can do before, not just more than you knew before. Knowledge is just a means to an end.

Question 43

What is the “fourth grade slump” and why might it be linked to background knowledge?

Answer 43

- The “ fourth grade slump” finding is that you have got kids from those low socioeconomic status homes or from almost saying homes where their parents don’t value education so much as people from education higher socioeconomic status families. What you see in terms of reading ability they can sort of track along until grade 3 then there is a big gap emerging. They start to fall behind. Because up until grade 3, the learning and reading that they are doing at this level is very sort of concrete and it’s all the focus on just comprehending what the word means. It’s the idea where there isn’t sort of validating, describing and decoding. There’s no about high level for processing in order to understand these high level concepts. Everything seems fine exactly as it is. When you are at grade 3, children know roughly what it means and understand the term. When we get into the grade for the level of reading required is and suddenly gets a level of sophistication where you have to go beyond that and it starts requiring background knowledge. Hence, that’s where the kids who might have that advantage. For example, I have done more reading at home. Therefore, they have got this much for richer background knowledge compared to those kids who do not so much reading at home. When you get to this higher of filling in gaps and they are not, this is not cat sit on the mat. But there is some sort of level of reading between the lines going on that some level that were they having to fill in and to understand intense. The kids who have got a lot more reading at home. I have got this background knowledge, who come from. As it is empirically a higher socio-economic status home typically that’s when they get a massive advantage. This is when you start getting this big gap in reading ability opening up between these two groups of kids. Up until grade 3, it does not really matter. After grade 3, it seems matter.

Question 44

12. List four reasons why background knowledge helps reading comprehension.

Answer 44

- It provides vocabulary. - It allows the bridging of logical gaps writers leave. - It allows chunking which increases room in working memory- which makes it easier to link ideas. - It guides the interpretation of ambiguous sentences.

Question 45

What is the interaction between background knowledge and ease of reading, according to Willingham (2009)?

Answer 45

- According to Willingham (2009), the interaction between background knowledge and ease of reading is that if our background knowledge is being chunks in short term memory fit to fill in the immediate information then cognitive load is reduced. It becomes way easier to absorb what the writing is communicating.

Question 46

How we can make the Wason 4 card problem easy without changing the fundamental problem?

Answer 46

- We can make the Wason 4 card problem easy without changing the fundamental problem by turning it into something concrete that people can leverage their background knowledge. For example, turn it into a pub drinking example.

Question 47

Describe the Wason 4 card problem and its solution.

Answer 47

- Each card has a letter on one side and the number on the other side. The proposition is that if the card has a vowel on one side, it must also have an even number on the other side. Which cards do we need to turn over to confirm this hypothesis? For example, if you think you need to turn over the card 4 & K, then you will have to write 4+ K. The actual answer to this question is E & 7. The incorrect answer is E +4. The rule means that the card comes with even number. Hence, it still have consonant on the other side. There is no point of turning over 4 because it does not matter what is on the other side. That has nothing to do with the rule. The more you read that rule and you imply that are there for everything with an even number must have a vowel on it, but that’s actually not was written. However, the rule also means that caused by the odd numbers must have a constant on the other side. We do also need to turn over 7. If you have been trying hard to solve the problem but still cannot do it because it is fundamentally difficult. Because you have not encountered it before. - Another problem that is similar to the Wason 4 card problem that is presented in a more concrete version is which drinker do you have to disturb to see if anyone under 18 is drinking alcohol underage. You are a bartender who is in-charge of a pub that attends to 4 people. You know some information of these people but not all of it. Person 1 drinks alcohol but you are unsure if they are over or under 18. Person 2 drinks soft drink but you do not know their age. Person 3 is over 18 who drinks but unsure whether he consumes alcohol or non-alcoholic drink. Person 4 is under 18 but did not tell what drink he is drinking. Which one of these people do you have to disturb to find out extra information and make sure you do not lose your license from Queensland Government? If you think you need to disturb person 1 & 2, just write it down. The correct answer is person 1 & 4. Person 1 needs to be disturbed because they are underage and doing illegal activity. Person 2 does not need to be care because they are drinking a soft drink are allowed to be consumed be people of all ages. There is no difference in whether your license will be revoked. You do not need to disturb. As for Person 3, there is no difference because they are over 18. While Person 4 needs to be disturbed because they are underage and drinks alcohol. It is exactly the same problem structure but just that the same problem is from a logical point of view. It is easier to answer this question compared to the last question. Because this question gives more concrete and maps on by leveraging your background knowledge of drinking situation. Whereas, the last one is a bit more highly abstract that you are unable to leverage background knowledge of this situation, so it is harder to answer. The concrete version of this question gives a more concrete picture for you to understand what it’s going on by leveraging all your background and expertise in drinking in pubs. The problem becomes much more effortless when you start to apply background knowledge based on your mental representation.

Question 48

What’s the main prediction made by Cognitive Load Theory?

Answer 48

The main prediction made by cognitive load theory is that by having background information helps to reduce that cognitive load.

Question 49

According to Sweller (1988), what’s the link between learning and cognitive load?

Answer 49

- According to Sweller (1988), the link between learning and cognitive load is that you learn better when your brain is not holding too much information in short term memory.

Question 50

What did Van Overschelde & Healy (2001) find about their “created experts”?

Answer 50

- Van Overschelde & Healy (2001) found about their “created experts” was that it was not a true randomized experiment because you have experts and novices so there may be some confounds. Therefore, it is hard to say about the direction of the causality. If we really want to know about the causality, we need to run an experiment in this domain. Both authors had basically “created experts” within the experiment itself. The problem of looking into experts and novices is that if you have got people who are already an expert, they might get a better score and memory. It could just simply mean that they like this topic better because they have chosen it. There is a self-selection confound.

Question 51

What evidence is there that background knowledge aids memory?

Answer 51

- The evidence that supports background knowledge aids memory allows you to remember more about some story or article or something related to that topic than if you do not have the background knowledge related to that topic. The more background knowledge you know, when you see the new knowledge the more sort of links you can make to the stuff that you already know. Basically, this gives you more cues to aid your memory.

Question 52

Why might we expect having more background knowledge on a topic would improve memory for that topic?

Answer 52

- Because it allows chunking to minimize cognitive load. If we have got more information about a particular topic, it makes acquiring more knowledge about that topic easier. We can take that new things slot it straight into this mental representation rather than have to understand the things all around it that makes it much harder to understand.

Question 53

According to Willingham (2009), why is it a problem to talk about teaching either factual knowledge OR analytical skills?

Answer 53

- Willingham (2009) argued that it is basically a fallacy to think on one hand, we have facts. On the other hand, we have analysis. The two separate is decent facts and just teach people how to analyze things. The point that he was trying to make was that those two things are completely interdependent on one another. They are intimately intertwined for problems with reasoning skills and problem-solving skills are intimately intertwined with factual knowledge in short to long term memory. The thing is that your knowledge structure is all combined together. The critical thinking processes are tied to background knowledge not two separate things. For example, the vocabulary. We are doing some sort of analysis task to analyze something you need the language to be able to analysis. The language that you are using is background knowledge, you expect background factual knowledge, just let you have the words to be able to express and to be able to think about things is background knowledge. On the other hand, knowing facts about a topic does not mean that people can’t necessarily apply that knowledge to solve that problem. In conclusion, if you just simply have facts alone is useless compared to when you are being dumped with all this information and then go out there to get a job and to make a training course. We have to show the application as well. But overall, we need both application and facts to allow both to be working together.

Question 54

According to Willingham (2009), why is it a problem to focus education exclusively on analytical skills at the expense of factual knowledge?

Answer 54

- According to Willingham (2009), the point that he is trying to make within education in the olden days, we make kids to sit down to route learn all of these stuff and memories all of these stuffs. What we want people to have these sort of analysis, generalizable, critical thinking skills where they can synthesize all of this information. We should not be making children to sit there to route learn things or memories facts. He argued that what we are trying to do here is to teach people analytical skill but not all of these facts. As they go through life, the facts may change. Because they got all of these analytical skills, they can apply that to any new situation. It is so easy to look up for the facts by using your phone on google within 2 seconds. The analytical skills will never go out of date. But the facts that you are certainly analyzing will go outdated. Therefore, we should teach analytical skills and dump all of the factual basis. However, he rebutted that what you are acquiring the very skills of analyzing something or synthesizing something or criticizing something, you cannot do it in a vacuum of knowledge. You need something to analyses or criticize or synthesize, you can’t do it in the abstract

Question 55

List five of Willingham’s principles for learning in education together with what needs to be known about the students, and classroom implications.

Answer 55

- Knowledge precedes skill - Memory is the residue of thought - While people are curious, they only willingly think under circumstances. - We understand new things in the context of things we already know. - Proficiency requires practice.

Question 56

Describe an example of an Intelligent Tutoring System.

Answer 56

- John Anderson, who is cognitive psychologist, have created this software tutoring program where they aim to teach people to program this computer language which is called LISP. It has basically created this computer tutor and the tutor could sot of lip functions and he could analyze sort of things that students typed in the list. LIPS are only function that people typed into its spot areas with it and then suggest correction. This is a bit link to proceduralisation. He ran a component analysis of learning LISP and came up with these 500 key procedures. If you have mastered these 500 procedures, then you would be pretty good at programming lists or production rules as he called, “2* x 2” – set the sub goals to code, those two numbers. The main point is that we have defined these 500 procedures that we need the people to load to be able to program list and then set up this systematic training program to actually communicate what these 500 procedures are getting to apply them into action and monitor their performance to ensure they achieve mastery on each of these 500 things such as practice, feedback.

Question 57

What are Intelligent Tutoring Systems?

Answer 57

- Intelligent tutoring systems were devised as a way of putting componential analysis/ mastery learning into practice.

Question 58

How does a mastery learning approach differ from traditional education practices?

Answer 58

- A mastery learning approach is the idea that people have got to learn 10 things you show them the first thing and they have got a base you reach a high level of standard and that before you move on to the next thing. You have got to master each step along the way. Whereas, the traditional education approach allows you to attain half pass the mark before you are allowed to move on and decide to go which education and the route.

Question 59

What is mastery learning?

Answer 59

- Mastery learning is where we set up a sort like a learning situation context. All the experts in this domain have automated different procedures to create training where you have got a basically proceduralise those components to a certain standard before we show you further component.

Question 60

What is a componential analysis?

Answer 60

- A componential analysis is essentially taking your skill and then breaking it down into all its key procedures or component by converting all of your declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge. - We might ask “what exactly is/are the components of knowledge that we actually need for that task?” Based on the task that we know; we make a long list.

Question 61

How can we reconcile the automaticity account of expertise with experts reporting thinking during skilled performance?

Answer 61

- In chess, where we know the incidental memory for the task relevant stimuli. This is like chess players see a board and then they can just remember the whole entire board. This suggest that if they were completely automated then they should remember it. Because I barely process that information. This suggest that if they were looking at the board and they are processing the board. It’s not that they are not engaged in cognitive processes and paying attention to these tasks, because if they were completely automatic they shouldn’t be able to remember anything. What we are doing is automating the bits of the task that can be automated. The things have to be done quickly and where there is a direct link between this stimuli and output you do this. Therefore, you can do that. They can use their spare thinking time to think at a much higher tactical level. It is less that they don’t think. It’s more they free up stuff that all their thinking space that they wouldn’t otherwise if they were a novice have required to sort of deal with small detail. They have automated all of that. Therefore, they can instead use their thinking time to think of that much higher strategic level and therefore more advantage. The expert think high strategic level that will receive the map on to that marathon runner study so planning, reasoning and anticipation high level stuff that they are able to do because they have automated all the low level stuff.

Question 62

What did Morgan & Pollack (1977) find out about the thought processes of expert marathon runners compared with novices?

Answer 62

- Morgan & Pollack (1977) found expert marathon runners were actually thinking all of these tactical and strategic sort of thoughts and plans and things as they were running along, monitoring their physiological state “ if I run a bit slower, how is my body dealing with this and the effectiveness or running should speed up in this compared with novice marathon runners who were basically thinking about the pain while running. They were basically not thinking of how to win this marathon

Question 63

What experiment did Rowe and McKenna conduct to investigate automaticity in expert tennis players (methods, results, conclusions)?

Answer 63

Rowe and McKenna (2001) conducted a study to investigate automaticity in expert tennis players where they were showing them video footage of someone who was changing their shot goes to one direction. Then, you have to press the button when the student shot goes in the other direction. The results suggested that expert players are able to predict the direction of the ball, much earlier than novices and in fact predict the direction of the ball before the other player has actually hit it. This is crucial in tennis because if you wait until the ball has left your opponent racket then it’s way too late for you to react to it. The ball has got to move way faster which allows you to predict where the ball is going to go before, they have hit it, which means you have to use cues from the way their body posture is. But of course, in a professional tennis game of tennis, they will be trying to hide those cues and some use of misdirection. Therefore, it is really hard skill especially in high level tennis and possibly low-level tennis. In one experiment, these people did two alternative forms of this tennis test- one on its own and one while doing a secondary task at the same time. The secondary task was to generate a stream of random letters at a rate of about 2 per second. function. The initial stage of doing this task is really hard. The task has been designed to completely filled up your brain up. Hence, it is very demanding and requires massive cognitive resources to do it properly. Findings revealed that both main effects are significant which means that experts are much better than novices. When they are doing the dual task, they perform much worse than when they are doing the single task. The interaction is significant which explains that the effect of the dual tasking on the expert is significantly smaller than novice. The novice is proportionally more affected by the dual task than the expert and that is evidence of automaticity. The expert suffers less interference when they are doing this task, suggesting they require fewer cognitive resources to do it. The simple effects are significant as well.

Question 64

Describe Jenkins et al.’s (1994) PET scanner study looking at proceduralization (methods, results, conclusion).

Answer 64

- Jenkins et al.’s (1994) conducted a PET scanner study on people by getting them to tap their fingers in a particular sequence, and he is getting to do that while they were sitting in the back of a brain scanner. By using the same sequence, participants were told to tap their right finger index finger middle finger middle finger index finger, so it becomes a set pattern. As participants were sitting in the PET scanner early on in the training, there is a lot more activity in the frontal bits of the brain and the frontal bits of the brain are more associated with conscious thinking and planning. As you are thinking about, what is its next finger that you are moving. You are relying on your declarative knowledge. We predicted that if porceduralisation has taken place or we might predict is that once you have a lot of practice. It actually showed the memory area of your brain lighting up and not the thinking areas of your brain at the front. Hence, that was exactly what they found. They give people this task. They start off on all the activity right in front of the brain. After they have done enough, the thing becomes proceduralised and it is much more automatic then the activation is all in the hippocampus, which is associated with memory. If you are an expert, you are relying on your long-term memory. If you are a novice, you are relying on figuring everything out from first principles which is way harder.

Question 65

What neuroimaging evidence supports the idea of proceduralization?

Answer 65

Jenkins et al.’s (1994) PET scanner study

Question 66

What did Logan and Klapp (1991) find in their experiment examining proceduralization (methods, results, conclusions)?

Answer 66

- Logan and Klapp (1991) conducted a study that illustrates proceduralisation by getting the participants to solve a specific problem. The problem is something along the lines of “which letters is three along from F?” When the participants were presented with this problem, these problems would vary the number of letters that you would have to actually counter ahead to solve the problem. “Tell me what letter is three along from F. They are F G H or what letters are 3 along from a? They are A B C D E F. They vary this problem by one of the key things are varying apart from the letter itself is how many letters ahead. The result suggested that the bigger the number of the larger letters, they have to count ahead, the longer it takes them. People are solving the problem at this stage by literally, physically counting ahead in session 1. Whereas, in session 12, when people had to count fewer or less letters, they took about the same amount of time. When you have done enough of counting ahead 12345 you have remembered. You can pull down straight from memory, because you have memorized it. In conclusion, you start off by using declarative knowledge of having to figure it out after lots of practice. They are just remembering the solution. They do not have to count it forward in their heads to solve the problem. After the proceduralisation, they are essentially memorizing the answers that they took the same amount of time to solve the five counting forward problems as they would have solved the one counting forward problem one or two.

Question 67

Describe an experiment that illustrates proceduralization.

Answer 67

- Logan and Klapp (1991) conducted a study that illustrates proceduralisation by getting the participants to solve a specific problem. The problem is something along the lines of “which letters is three along from F?” When the participants were presented with this problem, these problems would vary the number of letters that you would have to actually counter ahead to solve the problem. “Tell me what letter is three along from F. They are F G H or what letters are 3 along from a? They are A B C D E F. They vary this problem by one of the key things are varying apart from the letter itself is how many letters ahead. The result suggested that the bigger the number of the larger letters, they have to count ahead, the longer it takes them. People are solving the problem at this stage by literally, physically counting ahead in session 1. Whereas, in session 12, when people had to count fewer or less letters, they took about the same amount of time. When you have done enough of counting ahead 12345 you have remembered. You can pull down straight from memory, because you have memorized it. In conclusion, you start off by using declarative knowledge of having to figure it out after lots of practice. They are just remembering the solution. They do not have to count it forward in their heads to solve the problem. After the proceduralisation, they are essentially memorizing the answers that they took the same amount of time to solve the five counting forward problems as they would have solved the one counting forward problem one or two.

Question 68

How did Logan (1988) define skill acquisition in terms of problem solving?

Answer 68

Logan (1988) define skill acquisition in terms of problem solving as learning to recall solutions to problem that was previously solved.

Question 69

What 3 things changed following proceduralization during Anderson’s (1982) geometry studies?

Answer 69

Firstly, they solve the problem a lot faster. Secondly, they are not doing this verbal rehearsal of all of the actual details of what these postulates are. He is pretty much going into the final solution and single step. For instance, “ I am going to stop my head, I am going to take a guess and wants to do an angle DK, DC, K is congruent to triangle ABK. This is only one of the two possible. It’s where they are getting to full stop. This is known as the cognitive stage of skills development. With all of the information, they are totally overloading him that takes a long time. With a few problems later, he has basically chunked all of that information and proceduralise. Therefore, he is able to solve the problem and thinking a lot less.

Question 70

What verbal commentary evidence supports the idea of proceduralization?

Answer 70

- Anderson (1982) set up a verbal protocol type experiment where they were getting people to solve problem by talking aloud about what they were getting people to solve problems. He showed this geometry problem here with triangles. Participants were shown side side side and side angle side postulate to prove two triangles are congruent to prove that they were the same shape and size. The participant is doing a lot of thinking by looking at side angle side postulate which is really effortful. By pulling out all of this facts that he knows about the postulates from his declarative knowledge , he is making a real deal of solving this problem. This occur before the novice proceduralise this knowledge. The same group of participants were given a whole series of these problems and few problems later, they basically become much better at it. Later, when you actually ask them to talk about it, they talk a lot less.

Question 71

What are the parallels between Anderson’s concept of proceduralization and Ericsson’s concept of mental representations?

Answer 71

The parallels between Anderson’s concept of proceduralization and Ericsson’s concept of mental representations is using less effort in thinking so that it allows us to do things way faster. Moreover, both concepts help you to make less mistake and free up your brain to do other things.

Question 72

What is proceduralization?

Answer 72

- Proceduralisation is basically solving the problem by just recognizing the pattern

Question 73

Describe the autonomous stage of skill development, according to Fitts and Posner (1967).

Answer 73

- According to Fitts and Posner (1967), they described the autonomous stage of skill development which is where the skill that I can do to become even faster and more errors free and the procedure become more automatic. Being automatic in this context is that it takes fewer and fewer cognitive resources. To think a lot less in order to carry them out.

Question 74

Describe the associative stage of skill development, according to Fitts and Posner (1967).

Answer 74

- According to Fitts and Posner (1967), they described the associative stage of skill development as taking all of that declarative knowledge and essentially turning it into procedural knowledge. At this stage, it tries to eliminate the initial that errors in understanding by making connections between all the different components of the skills. They create procedures in the head about performing the skill. Hence, there is no need to work out from scratch every time. This conversion of declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge is known as proceduralisation.

Question 75

What is procedural knowledge?

Answer 75

- A procedural knowledge is a knowledge about how to actually do a thing. It is usually (though not always) constructed from declarative knowledge to help to solve a problem.

Question 76

What is declarative knowledge?

Answer 76

- Declarative knowledge is known facts about things. For instance, Prof Mark can know what drum & bass to hit on what parts of the bar. It becomes a declarative explicit knowledge that you can say in a sentence.

Question 77

Describe the cognitive stage of skill development, according to Fitts and Posner (1967).

Answer 77

According to Fitts and Posner (1967), they described the cognitive stage of skill development as someone who is completely a novice because you are learning a skill completely for the first time. You do not know anything about it and trying to figure out how to get started. Since you are taxing your cognitive resources, it is hard at this stage to be taking all of these many facts. Declarative knowledge is relevant to this skill. All these are things that you need to solve the problem. All the component of skills. You are trying to hold all of them in your short-term memory. It is really hard. As a learner, you are trying to rehearse these facts into your knowledge and perform that skill. As a result, your brain becomes overload and you perform this skill really slowly. Hence, this increases your chance of cognitive overload of errors inside your brain.

Question 78

What are the three stages of skill development, according to Fitts and Posner (1967)?

Answer 78

Cognitive , associative and autonomous

Question 79

Describe evidence that indicates expertise tends to be very domain specific?

Answer 79

- Steve Faloon spend 200 hours of practice of trying to remember a list of random numbers. He actually went back to the ground zero for not be able to remember any random digit after spending hours of practice. This is probably because all of these strategies were built around processing numbers. He mentions that he was a runner and had a great familiarity with all of these sorts of world record in various things will record in various running races. He was using those numbers that built in as part of his strategy for how he would remember these random string of numbers.

Question 80

What did Ericsson et al (2004) find regarding the memory of pi-reciting champion, Rajan Mahadevan?

Answer 80

Ericsson et al (2004) find regarding the memory of pi-reciting champion, Rajan Mahadevan was that he could read out pi 230 1811 digits. He would spend years of trying to get learning all these things and surely with all that practice that bit of his memory would pump his brain like a muscle to be able to remember other similar things better known. As soon as they swapped him for a list of symbols, his list of number of things that he could recall went to six. Until, he had a bit of practice, he started strategies for dealing with that as well. But the point is essentially gone back to ground zero.

Question 81

To what extent does expertise in one domain tend to transfer to other similar domains?

Answer 81

They are immensely specialized in mental representation that they are exactly on the problem. They are trying to solve.

Question 82

List seven domains in which experts have been found to have better memory for domain-relevant material.

Answer 82

Bridge, Othello, snooker, medicine, electronic circuit diagrams, dance, basketball, field hockey, volleyball, figure skating, and football

Question 83

What sort of stimuli have experts across a range of domains been found to remember better?

Answer 83

- A better representative structured stimuli in this big long list of different things

Question 84

What study did Ward et al. (2013) conduct into expertise in soccer (methods, results, conclusions)?

Answer 84

- Ward et al. (2013) conducted into expertise in soccer where they got experts and novice soccer players to watch the video. They would stop the video at certain points and asked them to judge what would happen next. The result suggested that people who were the more expert soccer player had a better memory for where all the people were on the pitch. They would better ideas of what would happen next which is known as situation awareness. Expert soccer players have basically a better mental representation in their long-term memory which gives them a more sophisticated perception. When an expert soccer player looks at the image, they literally will see a different thing to sort of novice player. They will totally perceive a different level of thing and much higher level of obsession of abstraction. Whereas, a novice soccer player would see that one side is dominating the other side and they will see are they brought these people in around to this side to do this.

Question 85

What are mental representations and how do better mental representations give experts their advantage?

Answer 85

- Mental representation is a pattern of information. It could be the relationship between things or picture of things that rules fact on any basis. It is about anything that you can hold in your long-term memory. Experts no longer need to constrain by their limited working memory. Their working memory is not any bigger than anyone else is just saying it is being used super efficiently. They are trying to avoid to those working memory limits by not overloading them and do things way faster.

Question 86

How do novice and expert chess players differ in how they perceive a chess board, according to Ericsson?

Answer 86

- According to Ericsson, an expert chess player perceives a chessboard by looking at those pieces individually. They are thinking about it at a higher-level abstract of pattern. They talk about what they are doing such as the line of forces. They dominate the middle of the board and they have got these five pieces lined up which creates more forces here. This means that they dominate all this area and make it incredibly dangerous for the other player to do this sort of thing. They are looking at the chessboard and they are seeing the function of the game and who is dominating what and who is controlling what. Whereas, a novice chess player perceives a chessboard by looking at a missing whole bunch of these pieces on the board.

Question 87

What did Simon & Gilmartin (1973) estimate that chess masters had 50,000 of?

Answer 87

- Simon and Gilmartin (1973) estimated that if you are a chess master at an international level, you would have 50,000 chunks of chess pieces sitting there in your memory.

Question 88

What activity is the main predictor of chess expertise (Charness et al., 2005)?

Answer 88

- The main predictor of chess expertise is the amount of time you spent studying games being played by sort of chess grandmaster but not the amount of time you spend playing chess.

Question 89

What was Chase & Simon’s (1973) chess study involving chess pieces randomly placed on a board (methods, results, conclusions)?

Answer 89

- In the follow experiment that was conducted by Chase and Simon (1973) where they tested expertise to its limits. The thing that they introduced was instead of having the chessboard being part of a game. They just put the pieces on the chessboard completely at random. If the chess players are getting at their advantage because they are just smarter and generically better memory than if we put the pieces on the chessboard randomly, they should loss all their advantage and they did. When the chessboard is in a normal game, it is expected that the master should performed much better than beginner. Whereas, if you pick people entirely randomly, the master performed worst off than beginner. In conclusion, the chess expert is very specific. It is very specific to how chess is played and how game progresses and it is not that they have a more general memory. It could also be that people who have got great memories. Therefore, they choose to do chess because they tend to be better at it. But this result suggest that it is unlikely to be the case.

Question 90

What was Chase & Simon’s (1973) chess study involving two chess boards, one populated with a real game position (methods, results, conclusions)?

Answer 90

- Chase & Simon (1973) chess study involving two chess boards, one populated with a real game position where they told their participant to reconstruct the pieces on the chess board. They could actually see the originally board in view. They count the how many times the participants had to glance between chess boards to set it up. The result suggested that expert needed far fewer glances than novice players. They inferred that expert could hold much larger chunks of the chessboards in their memory at any one time than a novice. In conclusion, they argued that each glance was a chunk of chessboard and the expert needed far fewer glances to reconstruct the board, suggest that they could hold bigger chunks in memory with respect to chess. Each chunks represent meaningful games relationships between pieces.

Question 91

What did De Groot argue was the key mechanism behind expert chess players’ greater skill?

Answer 91

- De Groot argued that pattern based retrieval from memory was the key mechanism behind expert chess players greater skill. They are doing a memory task and not working out from scratch, problem solving task.

Question 92

What was the key difference between novice and expert chess players in terms of memory, according to De Groot’s work?

Answer 92

The key difference was that the chess expert basically had better long term memory 91% for chessboard than novices who only got 41%.

Question 93

What did de Groot (1948) discover about expert chess players thinking processes during a match?

Answer 93

De Groot (1948) discover about expert chess players thinking processes during a match was that they did not do an extensive search. Unlike chess computer and novice player, an expert chess player was not going through all of these possible moves that could be made. They were not even attempting to do this searching and considering more moves ahead than novice. Although it seemed that expert chess players were thinking ahead of their opponent in terms of the number of moves that they wanted to make on the chessboard, they were not.

Question 94

How can chess experts often beat chess computers, despite this advantage?

Answer 94

- Chess expert can defeat chess computer by giving a run to deep blue which is a computer created by IBM for their money and win on occasion.

Question 95

What key advantage do chess computers have over humans?

Answer 95

- The key advantage of chess computers have over humans is that there are able to work at a super-fast speed in going through each one of all this possible combination and outcomes to pick the best move to defeat their opponent.

Question 96

Why is chess so often used in expertise research?

Answer 96

- Chess is so often used in expertise research because it is handy for study. All of that problem with defining expertise is easy in chess because people who are chess expert can basically trash people who are not chess expert. It is much easier to define what expertise means in chess for you to beat other people. It is much easier to set up because of the nature of the chessboard since everything is constrained. There is no random chance occurring in terms of dice rolling. It is comparing one skill to the other. Therefore, it is fantastic for scientific study

Question 97

What’s the link between chunking and deliberate practice?

Answer 97

- The link between chunking and deliberate practice is about developing all of these mental representation. In your long term memory, you are allowing it do more effective chunking so that when you come to do the task you become an expert. You are not dealing with all of these different bits of information. Instead you are dealing with a smaller amount of information. This means that it gives you massive advantage in doing the task or an expert has.

Question 98

Why does chunking become more effective, the more expert someone is in a skill?

Answer 98

- Because expert is trying to rely on their long term memory to cheat the system and beat the limits of their working memory which allows them to fit more information into it by grouping using long term memory expertise. Essentially, expert skill is all about is about domain specific memory which means that you can group different bits of information into one unit of information.

Question 99

How does chunking improve performance in a skill?

Answer 99

- Chunking helps to improve our performance to attain a certain skill by reducing cognitive load that we are trying to juggle in our head to solve a problem. You want the things that you are juggling in your head to be within your short term memory. If it is within the capacity of your short term memory, then you are good. If it is not within the capacity of your short term memory, then it becomes much more harder for you. Moreover, it allows us to essentially expand the capacity of our working memory by making the things we can fit into our working memory chunks of bigger and have more information.

Question 100

In the chunking demonstration, why did people remember more of the letters when the gaps between the letters was changed?

Answer 100

- People remember more of the letters when the gaps between the letters was changed because they are arranged into sensible acronyms that can be easily recognised.

Question 101

In the context of memory, what is chunking?

Answer 101

Chunking is basically the process of organising our memory.

Question 102

Give your own example of how the same underlying information could be represented as different numbers of items in short term memory depending on how it is organized.

Answer 102

- An example of grouping same underlying information into different number of items can be grouped together them into words. For instance, t,e,l,e,v,i,s,i,o,n, m,o,v,i,e, a,c,t,o,r into television, movie and actor.

Question 103

What is the capacity of working memory according to Miller, (1956) and according to Cowan (2001)?

Answer 103

According to Miller (1956); Cowan (2001), they have suggested that the capacity of working memory is finite. People with short term memory can remember on average 7 +/ 2 – items. In the recent years, people think that human can remember less than 7 items because they are unable to draw those connection between those things that they are ask to memorise. People can remember only 4 items.

Question 104

What criticisms have been made of Malcolm Gladwell’s 10,000 hour rule?

Answer 104

- Some criticism that have been made of Malcolm Gladwell’s 10,00 hour rule is that to reach to a world standard at a skill does not mean that you have to spend 10,000 hours but it is just an indicator that states on average some people may take more than or less than 10,000 hours to practice in order to reach to that level of skill.

Question 105

What claims have been made in terms of how long it takes to become an expert?

Answer 105

According to Simon and Chase (1995) argued that it become an expert in their own specialised field, it would take them a minimum of 10 years of intense practice with over 10,000 hours to reach to a world standard at a skill.

Question 106

How do scientific definitions of expertise make it easier to identify true experts?

Answer 106

Scientific definitions of expertise make it easier to identify true experts by making it more easier to operationalise in such a way that we can measure and use it in experiment.

Question 107

What’s the problem with defining expertise based on peer-review?

Answer 107

- The problems with defining expertise based on peer-review is that there is a risk of circularity where you got these top rank of elite people from various discipline who say that their experts and this is what it means to be an expert. This is what expertise mean in this discipline. This is not necessarily an objective definition of what expertise means.

Question 108

In terms of identifying experts, what are the problems with the dictionary and the legal definition of expertise?

Answer 108

- The problems with defining expertise based on peer-review is that there is a risk of circularity where you got these top rank of elite people from various discipline who say that their experts and this is what it means to be an expert. This is what expertise mean in this discipline. This is not necessarily an objective definition of what expertise means.

Question 109

What’s the problem with defining expertise based on peer-review?

Answer 109

- The problems with defining expertise based on peer-review is that there is a risk of circularity where you got these top rank of elite people from various discipline who say that their experts and this is what it means to be an expert. This is what expertise mean in this discipline. This is not necessarily an objective definition of what expertise means.

Question 110

What happened in Hodgson’s (2008) study investigating wine expertise (methods, results, conclusions)?

Answer 110

- Hodgson (2008) investigated at the expertise of 4 wine judges in a major wine competition for over 4 years would rate 30 different types of wine samples to determine who would win the prize. It was predicted that the judges would give the same ratings if samples came from the same bottles but the ratings were somewhat different. Because one of the judges gave a higher ratings while the other gave a lower rating so they were somewhat inconsistent with each other. In conclusion, if a measure has no reliability, people have been completely inconsistent. It cannot be valid for this experiment because there is nothing to be valid that suggesting that the ratings of these wine happens to be determine by chance and not through the expertise of these wine expert.

Question 111

What are the problems associated with identifying a true expert?

Answer 111

- The problems associated with identifying a true expert is that we usually assume that they are good in their domain without knowing whether they are good at it.

Question 112

What criticisms have been levelled at Ericsson’s proposal that deliberate practice can account for nearly all variation in skilled performance?

Answer 112

- Although Ericsson proposed that deliberate practice leads to improvement in skilled performance, there are other factors such as learning a new skill at an age (young) accelerate your performance. The definition for deliberate practice is not very detailed because it keeps changing therefore it is hard to falsified. It could also be that you have done certain amount of practice and it has not lead to any improvement yet. This means that you will require more practice in order to see an improvement in your performance. You are using the techniques that has been used by experts in ancient times and has found it to be effective but in fact it does not seems the case because it leads you to poor performance outcome.

Question 113

What study did Ericsson et al (1993) conduct to investigate deliberate practice in violinists (methods, results, conclusions)?

Answer 113

- Ericsson et al (1993) recruited a three different group violinists who were enrolled as a student from a music academy. They include top level professional violinists, “best violinists at an academy (likely to become top level professionals), ‘good’ violinists at the academy and worst violinist. He got all of them to log down the number of hours that they would usually spent every day at practicing the violin. The results have suggested that the best violinist would spend about 30 hours per week in playing their violin whereas the worst violinist would spend about 10 hours per week. In conclusion, the number of hours that you spend practicing in learning a type of skills will improve your performance tremendously.

Question 114

List the six elements of deliberate practice (based on Ericsson & Pool, 2016).

Answer 114

- Experts to have already figured out best practice for learning the skill (what needs to be learned and in what order). - A plan for achieving a highly specific series of goals, usually involving incremental improvements. - To always be practicing things just beyond what you can currently achieve (keep it in the “red zone”). - To always apply full attention during practice. - To ensure you have a high quality performance feedback mechanism in place. - To hire a good instructor who can help develop the practice plan and provide feedback

Question 115

According to Ericsson & Pool (2016), what is the difference between purposeful and deliberate practice?

Answer 115

- The difference between purposeful and deliberate practice is the addition of experts that you can call upon who know how to get best practice. In other words, these experts has already matured in their own field of study that they are able to know what is best way of doing things.

Question 116

According to Ericsson & Pool (2016), what’s the important element that missing from “purposeful practice” strategies?

Answer 116

- They argued that the important element that is missing from “purposeful practice” strategies is that you will need to find the field of expert who is willing to tell you

Question 117

According to Ericsson, what is a key reason current world memory champions are far superior to Steve Faloon’s 1970s record?

Answer 117

- Ericsson & Pool (2016) argued that the key reason current world memory champions are far superior to Steve Faloon’s 1970s record because they are not figuring out by themselves on how to improve their techniques from scratch. But they look back from past world memory champion’s experience and adopt their techniques to make it become their own to excel in their professional domain.

Question 118

What evidence is there for neuroplasticity in mathematicians?

Answer 118

- It has been evident that after more maths practice, there will be a greater cortical grey matter in relevant areas of the brain.

Question 119

What experimental evidence is there for skill-based training leading to changes in brain anatomy (participants, methods, results, conclusions)?

Answer 119

- A study was conducted a group of rats where they were told to do an acrobatic motor training. Their training would involve doing all sort of motor learning and balancing coordination. The first group of rats were told to do exercise with some acrobatic movement. While, the rest of rats do not involve any some sort of acrobatic movement. The result shows if you practice hard enough, it will create some sort of anatomical difference in your brain.

Question 120

What evidence regarding grey matter in the brain has been found to the concept of neuroplasticity and practice?

Answer 120

Studies have proved that if you start practicing a skill that you want to be good such as memorising, swimming or playing the piano, there will be an increased in grey matter volume in your brain in relevant parts of the cortex.

Question 121

What evidence regarding the human cerebellum has been found to the concept of neuroplasticity and practice?

Answer 121

- Human cerebellum has been found to be related with movement control because when you play the piano or lift up some weights in the gyms. As a result, it will strengthen that particular area of your brain to become even stronger.

Question 122

What brain-imaging study did Elbert et al. (1995) conduct demonstrating neuroplasticity in string players?

Answer 122

- Elbert et al. (1995) did a brain scan on a group of violinist and guitar player to look at the area of the brain scan on them and looking at the area of the brain that was focused on. The result of the study suggests that the region of the brain associated with left hand finger control was significantly larger in 9 right-handed string players compared with 6 non-musicians. More expertise was associated with this region being even larger. The region controlling the fingers had “taken over” the region used for the palm. In general, start practicing the skills that you want to possess at an early age in order to see the result that you want to see.

Question 123

List three studies that provide evidence that the brain makes anatomical adjustments to itself as a result of practice.

Answer 123

- Elbert et al. (1995): Increase cortical representation of the fingers of the left hand in string players - (Gaser & Schlaug, 2003): Brain structures differ between musicians and non-musician - (Anderson et al., 1994): Glial Hypertrophy is associated with synaptogenesis following motor skill learning, but not with angiogenesis following exercise.

Question 124

What implications does Ericsson’s skill homeostasis idea have for how we should practice a skill?

Answer 124

To achieve that new normal, you will need to constantly push what you can currently do so that your brain will try and adapt to keep up.

Question 125

According to Ericsson, what’s homeostasis got to do with skill acquisition?

Answer 125

- The body is trying to keep its temperature to 37 degrees. It is trying to keep so various all the biochemistry is trying to keep it sort of steady state, and it’s got all these feedback mechanisms for keeping you this steady state. Every time your body is taken outside that comfort zone implements all of these strategies for trying to get you back into that comfort zone. When you start to overheat, then you start to sweat, your temperature back down. Ericsson is trying to suggest is that you have got to push yourself just outside your comfort zone and your little bit outside your comfort zone and make your body believe that is the normal. Because it will adjust to it literally will repurpose and rewire your brains to achieve that. It is basically forcing your body or brain to think that the level at which you are performing is the new normal. Then, it will adapt all its things around that.

Question 126

What were Ericsson’s ideas about how to break through plateaus in improvement, taken from his observation of Steve Faloon?

Answer 126

- Whenever Steve Faloon had a decline in his performance for memorising a list of random digits, Ericsson decided to change his strategy by using a different method to try and help him to memorise better. By tricking your brain into believing that you can push beyond what you can normally do such as playing one or two musical notes that you cannot do at the start will help to improve your performance. Therefore, the crucial thing that we need to do in order to improve our performance is motivation.

Question 127

What are the principles behind “purposeful practice”, according to Ericsson & Pool (2016)?

Answer 127

- According to Ericsson & Pool (2016), the principles behind “purposeful practice” is that we need to first have goal setting. In other words, we need to break down the main goal of performing a skill to a certain level into smaller sub goals. Secondly, we need to have high quality feedback mechanism. Not just external performance feedback – but an introspective analysis of why errors were made and where weaknesses are. Feedback are useful for motivation. Decent feedback is often what’s missing from everyday tasks. Thirdly, we need to have sufficient time for practicing. Fourthly, we need to push beyond our comfort zone by focusing on what we cannot do rather than what we can already do. Fifthly, we need to give the task full attention when we practice rather than automatic pilot.

Question 128

How effective is re-reading lecture notes as a way of learning content, according to learning research?

Answer 128

- According to learning research, it has been described that by looking at your lecture materials over & over again. It is known as the least efficient method of learning. People are practicing until they get some level where they are sort of what we call satisfying although they reach some good enough level that either their performance stay the same or decline. If effort has not been made, then it is unlikely to see an improvement in your performance.

Question 129

What is “naïve practice”, according to Ericsson?

Answer 129

- According to Ericsson, he suggests that “naïve practice” is about performing the skill over & over again that it does not lead to an improvement in the performance.

Question 130

What evidence is there regarding the relationship between experience and expertise?

Answer 130

Overall, the number of years performing a skill is only weakly related to performance. This is because doctor need to have constant exposure to different presentation of their patient and patient outcome.

Question 131

According to Ericsson & Ward (2007), what’s the trajectory of medical expertise across years of practice?

Answer 131

- Ericsson & Ward (2007) proposed that the trajectory of medical expertise across years of practice will improve during their 1-2 years of practice, then it will either stay the same or get even worsen.

Question 132

What study did Sakakibara (2014) conduct involving absolute pitch (methods, results, conclusions)?

Answer 132

- Sakakibara (2014) ran an experiment on a total of 24 children 2-6 years old to test their ability to identify a pitch through rigorous training for 5 times a day for 2-5 mins/ session for 2 years from a music school in Tokyo. These children were tested 2 weeks later for identifying the pitch. If they manage to identify the pitch correctly, then the experimenter will increase the complexity of training based on how these children have met some of their training regime. On average, these children manage to reach the criterion after 58 weeks (range 34-94). In conclusion, it is recommended to start training when people are young.

Question 133

What is perfect pitch and why is it a good demonstration of the power of neuroplasticity?

Answer 133

- Perfect (absolute) pitch (the ability to name a musical note without a reference point) was thought to be the prototypical example of an untrainable skill, which can only be acquired through innate talent (for 1 in 10,000 people). - It is a good demonstration of the power of neuroplasticity because it is genetic entirely inherited and not something that is related to the environment.

Question 134

In Ericsson’s view, what is the key attribute of the human brain that means that we can keep on breaking world records?

Answer 134

- The secret to have a superpower memory is to continuously adapt to new changes. This can be done by neuroplasticity where the brain is continuously rewiring itself and adapting through strengthening and weakening the connection between neurons. Once our brain is able to use the right procedures and strategies, it is able to push the boundaries of what we can usually achieved to be higher & higher. Therefore, the brain can adapt itself in amazing ways.

Question 135

List seven examples of skills that people are now considered much better at than they were a few decades ago, according to Ericsson & Pool (2016).

Answer 135

Hotdog, typing, diving, memory, basketball, math, cycling

Question 136

Who is Steve Faloon and what feat did he manage?

Answer 136

Steve Faloon was a psychology undergraduate who was recruited by psychologist Ericsson to test whether he can go beyond the human working memory by memorising a list of random digits. After undergoing two years of training with over 200 session by just simply memorising a list of random digits, Steve managed to memorise up to 82 digits which was way beyond what an average person could have remembered only 7-8 random digits.

Question 137

1. What is the most important variable for practice effectiveness, according to Schmidt & Lee (2005)?

Answer 137

- Amount of practice

Question 138

2. Describe the difference between “blocked” and “random” practice schedules.

Answer 138

- Blocked practice : do 1 task one at a time – do it repeatedly until you become good at it then move on to the 2nd task. Hence, it is low contextual interference because you are doing the same task with low interference. - Random practice : go in between three different task – high contextual interference. Because you are continually changing task, thus it is high interference

Question 139

3. Describe Shea & Morgan’s (1979) experiment on contextual interference (methods, results, conclusions).

Answer 139

- Shea & Morgan’s (1979) told their participants to use wooden machines with paddle things to knock over targets with a tennis ball. Based on the order in which you knock over determines by which light comes out. As the participants are knocking down the paddles in a certain order and put them back in the middle requires complex motor skill task. Depending on the colour of the stimulus light, it informs you what order you should knock those targets. Participants were randomly allocated into two different groups where one focus more on doing task in different sequence which is known as the blocked practice while the other focus on doing the same sequence and doing it over and over again which is known as the random practice. - It is predicted that those group with higher reaction times means that they have shown worse performance. Findings revealed that blocked practice group outperformed the random practice group but in fact both groups are equally learning the same thing as each other. The blocked practice group are doing poorly than random practice group indicate that there is a temporary performance deficit because they are continuously swapping different task. - However, the results does not tell you if this is actually learning effect we are seeing here is just a temporary effect in which the conditions are put in. There is an issue with the relevant training evaluation of the study design. - However, after the participants were all given 10 minutes break, the results suggested that those who were in the blocked practice group actually performed worse than those in the random practice group. - Participants were tested 10 days later to see if there is any improvement in their performance. They were tested twice and go to choose 1 or the other schedules by swapping task between random people or blocked people. The study have changed from a normal transfer design to double transfer design where there was a counterbalance between both condition. There was one or more post training test over different time periods. Findings revealed that those who were given same sequence throughout the whole experiment (Blocked – blocked) were tested in all condition. In fact, those who were in the random practice have actually a better advantage during the testing because they leads them into having better and longer term learning and less context dependency.

Question 140

4. What’s a transfer design?

Answer 140

- Transfer design is where you give your participants a break before testing them again. If learning has taken place, performance should be enhanced. If learning has not taken place then performance won’t be enhanced.

Question 141

5. Name the design that Karpicke & Roediger (2008) used in their 4 condition experiment on the testing effect.

Answer 141

6. What’s a double transfer design? - A double transfer design is where you counterbalance between both condition by using more than one post training test over different times.

Question 142

7. Name the design that Shea & Morgan (1979) used in their contextual interference experiment.

Answer 142

- Double transfer design

Question 143

8. What are the two benefits of using a random rather than a blocked practice schedule?

Answer 143

- Better and longer term learning | - Less context dependency

Question 144

9. What is contextual interference?

Answer 144

- Contextual interference is the learning benefit you get from using a random practice schedule (rather than a blocked practice schedule)

Question 145

10. How did Van Merrienboer & Sweller (2005) reconcile contextual inference effects with Cognitive Load Theory?

Answer 145

- Van Merrienboer & Sweller (2005) argued that cognitive load theory requires increased in learning and less cognitive load where you hold less things in your head so that you can take on new information while contextual inference effect requires you to put much harder random schedule to continuously swap different task which increased cognitive load which is why it leads to better learning performance. They argued that both of these elements reconcile is when increased in cognitive load leads to increase in contextual inference which is specific and relevant to what you are trying to learn.

Question 146

11. Describe a contextual interference experiment involving a simulation of a real sport.

Answer 146

- In the contextual interference experiment of a tennis, both novice and expert tennis players were told to make prediction of which direction of the ball might be heading to by an actual tennis player based on a live video presentation. Then, they were told to make video perspective correctly based on the live size on screen. There were three different types of tennis shot that were either random and blocked. Participants who were allocated in the blocked condition got to watch the same number of shot repeatedly while those in the random condition had to watch three different types of shots. After the video was being played, the experimenter cut it into black and gave participants a chance to response where the ball might be heading to in 4 different possible location then they were given feedback based on their performance. Findings suggested that random condition outperformed those in the blocked condition because they have longer and better retention of memory.

Question 147

12. Describe three theories that explain the contextual interference effect.

Answer 147

- Elaborative processing hypothesis : With random schedule, it forces you to start a new task over and over again. It forces you to do a lot more elaborative processing and distinctive processing because you are swapping different task. Thus, it requires more elaborative thinking that does not require you to remember things in a short amount of time and gives you a better mental representation. It allows you to compare and contrast different task. - Action Plan Reconstruction hypothesis : actively switching task all the time based on random practice. It forces you to reconstruct the task to learn a new thing at a continuum that does not require you to retrieve new thing over and over again which promotes better learning and memory. - Errors processing hypothesis : With blocked schedules, you report to have made the same number of errors. Whereas, random schedules, you report to have an increased in errors and better learning.

Question 148

13. What evidence suggests that trainees might be unlikely to choose a random practice schedule if given a choice?

Answer 148

- Simon & Bjork (2001) conducted an experiment in which participants learned 3 keystroke patterns on a number pad using either a random or blocked schedule. Participants had to undergo a retention test 24 hours later. Findings suggested that the random group performed better but predicted their performance would be worse. They did not overestimate as to how much their skills were improving and lack of insight to how much they were learning.

Question 149

14. Make a case for the generalizability of the contextual interference effect

Answer 149

- Rohrer & Taylor (2007) found randomly interleaving different maths problems rather than grouping them (as happens in text books) led to better performance. - Kornell & Bjork (2008) found that students learning the painting styles of different artists did better where the paintings of the different artists were presented in a random order (rather than grouped by artist). Students believed they had learned better in the blocked condition. - The contextual interference effect is reasonably well replicated for laboratory tasks, lots of different sports (see Schmidt & Lee, 2005, p.346), and also knowledge acquisition (it’s described as “interleaving” in this literature) – see Birnbaum et al. (2013).

Question 150

15. Describe Bourne & Archer’s (1956) experiment on massed vs distributed practice using a pursuit rotor tracking task (methods, results, conclusions).

Answer 150

- Bourne & Archer (1956) used a pursuit rotor tracking task and 5 different practice distributions (0 rest to 60 secs rest between 30 sec trials). They were scored based on their accuracy on the task. During acquisition, differences could be due to fatigue. However, the distributed advantage remained into transfer trials (with 0s rests). When the participants were doing the task in the transfer trial, the five condition were preserved. It was found that participants who did not experience any fatigue had a longer rest break than those with less rest break. Therefore, distributed practice is better than massed practice that can be explained by simple fatigue effect.

Question 151

16. Describe Baddeley & Longman’s (1978) experiment on massed vs distributed practice involving postmen (methods, results, conclusions).

Answer 151

- Baddeley & Longman’s (1978) experiment on massed vs distributed practice involving postmen to learn to type the code into keypad by looking at the most effective way to schedule their practice. The postmen were randomly assigned into four different condition where they were practicing 2*2 hours/day , 1*2 hours/day – massed practice [2*1 hours/day, 1*1 hours/day]. The results indicated that the more you spaced out your learning the more memory retention you will get. Those who are in distributed practice group learn faster than those in the massed practice. However, this group were also least satisfied with their schedule and the overall duration of their training was longer (because it was more spread out).

Question 152

17. Describe Moulton et al.’s (2006) experiment on massed vs distributed practice involving surgeons (methods, results, conclusions).

Answer 152

- Moulton et al (2006) assigned surgical residents to either receive skill training (microvascular anastomosis) in a 1-day session (massed) or 4 shorter sessions spread over several weeks (distributed). • Both groups performed a battery of skill tests (including performing the skill on a live rat) to the same level immediately after training. • However, the distributed group were significantly better in these tests 1 month after training. -

Question 153

18. Give 3 reasons why distributed practice might lead to better retention than massed practice.

Answer 153

- The breaks give the brain a chance to better consolidate the new skill or the information learned (e.g. Moulton et al 2006). - 2. Distributed practice allows for more cognitive preparation and mental rehearsal between sessions (where this could be implicit). - 3. Also distributed practice may increase the amount of retrieval required, just like random practice schedules (boosting consolidation and strengthening retrieval structures).

Question 154

19. What’s the spacing effect?

Answer 154

20. Explain why the distributed practice effect and the generation effect might suggest different approaches to learning new words. - The distributed practice effect is about spacing out our learning as much as possible. While generation effect is all about attempting to retrieve the word from memory as soon as possible so that we are more likely to remember.

Question 155

21. What is expanding retrieval?

Answer 155

- Expanding retrieval is about using both spacing effect and generation effect to get immediate retrieve and gaps in between while practicing.

Question 156

22. What was Ebbinghaus’s (1913) “memory savings” discovery?

Answer 156

- Ebbinghaus’s (1913) “memory savings” discovery was that while we forget information quite fast (so we can’t retrieve it), this doesn’t necessarily mean this information has vanished from our brains. - • He memorized a list of words until he had perfect recall. • Then he waited until he forgot the entire list. • Then he re-memorized the list. • He found it was much faster to memorize the list the second time, suggesting that the list was still in his mind (memory “savings”) – it had just become harder to access (until he “reactivated” its retrieval pathway). • That is, he had effectively reversed his forgetting

Question 157

23. Bahrick & Hall (1991) found people who didn’t forget algebra over 55 years. What was their secret?

Answer 157

Their secret was that they have enough boosters to be reminded of their algebra whenever they are being tested so they will not forget information easily.

Question 158

24. What benefits does sleeping have for learning?

Answer 158

- The benefits of sleep have for learning is that it helps to consolidate what you have learnt when you are awake. There is a synaptic consolidation going on in your hippocampus as part of the brain evolve in memory that allows you in 24 hours to make connections between structure in order to consolidate your memory. Going to sleep after learning will enable system to consolidate through mobilising and slowing it down. There is an increased information that is being transferred from hippocampus to elsewhere in the brain. - Mazza et al. (2016) found that sleeping between learning sessions led to better retention both 1 week and 6 months later.

Question 159

25. Describe the different types of variability that may affect the performance of motor skills.

Answer 159

- Open interactive skills – sports : dealing with your opponent may affect on your performance of motor skills. [Kicking a football, throwing a ball in basketball have variables and constant bits. ] - Closed interactive skill – playing a musical instrument - External variables : what you do with skill that you have acquired and use it in either a high or low stake competition which may influence on your performan

Question 160

26. What is schema theory?

Answer 160

- A schema theory happens when you use your motor skills to procedure with rules and programs to carry out a particular classes of action.

Question 161

27. What did Schmidt (1975) suggest would be beneficial for ensuring the development of a generalizable schema when learning a motor skill?

Answer 161

- Schmidt (1975) suggested that when we practice, we want to practice under a variety of situation/ condition.

Question 162

28. Describe Catalano & Kleiner’s (1984) experiment investigating the effects of variable practice (methods, results, conclusions).

Answer 162

- Catalano & Kleiner (1984) asked participants to predict when a moving light using moving their hand (i.e. analogous to catching a ball). - Some practiced this task under constant conditions: 5, 7, 9, OR 11 mph. - Other practiced under variable conditions: 5, 7, 9, AND 11 mph. - When they were all given a transfer task that involved new speeds OUTSIDE the range of the practice speeds (1, 3, 13, and 15 mph), the variable group performed much better. - Overall, it is recommended to be practicing a task under variety of condition so that when you are asked to deal with a new task in a totally new different situation, you are more likely able to deal with it at a much higher speed.

Question 163

1. What did Williams & O’Neill (1974) discover about the crash risk of highly skilled drivers?

Answer 163

- Williams & O’Neill (1974) discovered that highly skilled drivers tend to have a higher crash risk, drive more dangerously and quickly than less skilled drivers.

Question 164

2. According to Horswill (2016), why has much traditional driver training been ineffective in reducing crash risk?

Answer 164

- Because it focuses too much on vehicle control such as getting your pedals right on the car does not predict crash risk.

Question 165

3. What is hazard perception in driving?

Answer 165

- Hazard perception is the ability to perceive and predict dangerous situation ahead.

Question 166

4. What is the underlying theoretical explanation for why certain drivers are better at hazard perception than others, according to Horswill (2016)?

Answer 166

- According to Horswill (2016), he argues that drivers have a better hazard perception than others because they have this better mental representation model of the driving environment by predicting about what others users are likely to do in any given situation. They are more likely to predict dangerous situation ahead. - A) They have more efficient visual search of road ahead and people have done eye tracking studies where is the case that expert can predict road ahead differently from novice. B) They have got better appreciation of threat that might you can’t currently see and yet might appear somewhere. C) They have got better understanding of the road users so they are more likely to make better prediction when driving on the road.

Question 167

5. List five variables that have been empirically associated with hazard perception in driving.

Answer 167

- Driver’s experience/ age - Level of distraction - Retro perspective and perspective crash risk - Useful field of view - Brain injury

Question 168

6. Outline the design for an experiment that could be used to evaluate the effectiveness of a hazard perception training intervention.

Answer 168

- The hazard perception training intervention will be conducted using a computerised test that have been previously validated and map onto two crucial driving measure of has perception. The perception test are traditional ones that we have got what’s called the hazard perception test which was like the what happens next. It shows you something but you do it without getting any feedback which is an assessment version. Some measures that we will be evaluating when predicting car crash behaviour includes speed choice test score, a measure of following distance based on video score, hazard perception test response and gap distanced score based on video.

Question 169

1. Explain an example of a situation where human performance improvement is needed but training is arguably not a good solution?

Answer 169

- They have tried to put all the writing of all the instructions that you need on the pen. But here’s the irony is first the instruction is if you grip the pen in the fist which covers up all the instructions which means you cannot read them. In this case, when you grab the pen and you pull the cap off. You saw the arrows on the pen which says 123 do this and this needs to be inject but it is still not inconceivable. You still have got a cap here. Most people will think that if you pull the cap out that is where the needle is coming from and do that. In fact, the needle is coming out of this end here. People have addressed this problem by writing lots of instructions on the pen, but it is still remaining a human problem. To solve this solution, we can provide people with training to make sure that they know what they are doing. However, people have argued that if we provide people with training, it might be the wrong solution.

Question 170

2. Give two reasons why training may be a weak solution to the misuse of EpiPens.

Answer 170

- First of all, people are having an electric shock after eating all of these nuts. These events are relatively rare for an individual. It could be that early in 2000s where I received training in using the epipen. Suddenly, I have to remember how to use the epipen that I was trained 10 years ago. The chances are I would probably have forgotten it especially if it is like receiving all sorts of typical training to do these sorts of things. - Second, the person patient themselves may not be the one who is administering. You are potentially getting a stranger to basically administer it so there is no opportunity for training. - The problem is that we called it a pen. People will immediately be having the mental model to think that this is a pen. They may think that a pen has cap and biros at the end, so they press down on it. By calling it a pen, people use a pen analogy, which means they use it like you would use a bio, which means clicking this and pulling the cap off that end and then writing like that. The idea is that you are using the analogy to stab yourself in the thumb. We have a counter intuitive design; people are incorrectly using the pen analogy. You have got this cap on one end and you pull off the cap. With all these things in, you put your thumb over the enter your light spray or whatever all squared, the thing in this case stick out the needle.

Question 171

3. What is the definition of human factors, according to Wickens et al. (1998)?

Answer 171

- According to Wickens et al. (1998), human factors can be defined as basically taking psychology as a whole and taking physiology then applying what know about psychology to build and design things. The thing can be a product such as a device, a process or even an entire healthcare system to apply it to human factor. We can work on all sorts of different levels and apply human factors to the organisation.

Question 172

4. List four examples of the type of system that might be studied by human factors researchers.

Answer 172

- physical device (e.g., laparoscope) - computer system (e.g., electronic health records) - workplace (e.g., operating theatre) - organisation (e.g., hospital)

Question 173

5. What is the key strategy employed by human factors to solve problems (according to Russ et all., 2013?

Answer 173

- According to Russ et al. (2013), the key strategy employed by human factors to solve problems is to take account of human capabilities and human limitation as part of our design. For instance, cognitive load. We know that people can hold very small amount of information in their head unless they can do all sorts of chunking stuff that we can talk about. We know that in terms of information, human capacity is very limited and so many of the designs out there simply do not take into account. In terms of physical, the sort of pull out the thing and then the thing you can click on one end, which is one where it is going to be likely to hurt yourself. In terms of cognitive, things like decision making aids and how you display information. In terms of perceptual, where a person looks at a piece of paper, what catches their eye. Second, what do they not even notice.

Question 174

6. Describe a key goal of human factors

Answer 174

- A key goal of human factors is to reduce human error and improve safety.

Question 175

7. Describe three (out of the five) situations when training is likely to be an appropriate strategy for improving patient safety (according to Russ et al., 2013)?

Answer 175

- First, when your goal is to familiarise people with new technologies. The idea is that when you build and you are bringing in something brand new. People have not seen it before. You want to familiarise them with that thing then find training. Where you are training them to explain the strength and limitations of this brand new thing that they have never seen before. When we say users here, we are talking about healthcare professionals like doctors and nurses. - Second situation is when it allows individuals to develop and test new techniques, practice evidence based techniques in a safe low risk environment. For example, we are practicing surgery pattern colonoscopy or laparoscopy all those sorts of things under stimulated conditions where you want them to actually learn these evidence based techniques just required practice to do. If you want them to have a high level of skill, you should give them appropriate training course and allow them to innovate as well. The idea is that they are training up and they are trying to develop and test new things - Third, when it allows people, individuals to gain experience with specialised techniques that involves sensory motor skills. This is very specifically aimed at surgery. They are doing something that involves fine motor skills and their specialised things is not everyone is doing. It makes sense where you have loads of experience with this particular technique will make people better. Training will be appropriate and people can gain that experience through more deliberate practice.

Question 176

8. Describe four (out the five) situations when training is likely to be an inappropriate strategy for improving patient safety (according to Russ et al., 2013)?

Answer 176

- First up, if the goal is for individuals to stop using technologies or tools or devices in the wrong way. If that’s the goal of your training, then the idea of that training might be the wrong approach to this problem. What this is saying is that you have got something here that is so badly designed that when people use it like with this pen. They do the wrong thing. That is the default is that they are doing it in the wrong thing. - Second, it is an attempt to the training to change the innate human characteristics or imperfections. That is when the nurse is noticing the patient is deteriorating. In this case, all the information is there and we should train them to be much more careful than to pay more attention. Basically, if we ran a training course telling nurse to pay more attention every time that they did things. The chances of that working that are pretty remote. Incentives are pretty terrible because when the person does not gets any reward for the hard work that they have paid off in helping the other individual, then they will stop doing it. - Third, trainings are introduced to address the types of error that is occurring across multiple people. It can possibly be that with this pen, if it was literally one person who has done it. That’s a case study. Everyone grabs it and does the right thing. It may not be possibly the one right thing. It could be just that one off thing but I showed you the data. We have got 100 doctors and 16 of them are doing that. Having these 100 doctors doing that. We can imagine that the proportion is going to be way higher in non-doctors. They are so innocent bystanders and multiple are doing it. Therefore, this is a generic problem that might be best addressed with a design solution groups - Fourth, individuals have been previously trained about the safety issues and the training hasn't fixed it, the problem persists. You have gone in and created your training course. The training course says pay more attention. You go back and review it and nothing has been changed. This suggest that the training that you have tried is not working. The problem could be either the system or the people who are using it.

Question 177

9. Describe the structure of a system design research program

Answer 177

- Phase 1: Understand the task, its problems, and its context. [Understand the problem as well as you possibly can. This includes understanding the problem, task and all the things that people have to do. You need to have a really good understanding of the context in which the task is being carried out because all these things might affect how you design the thing.] - Phase 2: Design the product or system, using iterative feedback (or provide suggested improvements to existing designs). [Once you have a good understanding, then you go in and design your product or design system. Using iterative feedback. This is the idea that you create something then you try and get people to have a go at using it. The main point is that you go about by designing it, improving it and trying it out until you get to a point where you think it's as good as you can be, by that process.] - Phase 3: Evaluate the new product [You conduct a proper evaluation to see whether what you have actually created will do the best job than what else is available. ]

Question 178

10. List three research methods we can use to understand a system and its problems, as might be used as part of a human factors system design research program.

Answer 178

- Task analysis and cognitive task analysis (Christofidis et al., 2012). - Heuristic evaluation of existing and proposed products to identify design problems (Preece et al., 2013). - Stakeholder surveys to understand beliefs about the task (Preece et al., 2012)

Question 179

11. What is a task analysis?

Answer 179

- A task analysis is a qualitative evaluation of a task in order to understand how it is accomplished.

Question 180

12. What is a cognitive task analysis?

Answer 180

- A cognitive task analysis is a type of task analysis that focusses on understanding the cognitive aspects of the task, such as situation assessment, decision making, response planning, and response execution.

Question 181

13. Give three examples of methods that could be used in a task analysis.

Answer 181

- Review literature (maybe someone has already dissected the task – e.g. in a textbook) - Interviews with task experts and other relevant stakeholders (e.g. novices, supervisors, those affected by the task outcomes) - Observational studies (go and watch people doing the task for real) - Get people to do simulations of the task if appropriate.

Question 182

14. What is a heuristic evaluation?

Answer 182

- It is about conducting a qualitative evaluation of existing products against a predetermined set of design criteria

Question 183

15. Give three examples of design criteria that might be evaluated in a heuristic evaluation.

Answer 183

- Information layout - Appropriateness of included information - Methods of representing decision-making information

Question 184

16. Why might it be important to know what key stakeholders think about a particular task – even if they’re incorrect?

Answer 184

- It is important to understand what people are using these things and think of them even if what they think is incorrect. This is because you are going to deal with that thing even if that thing is right or wrong that may influence the whole process of getting these a better product into the hospital. For example, we can design this amazing product but nobody wants to use it. They loved the thing that they have designed themselves. - This might be for valid reasons. It could be that they have had been using for a long time even though it is so optimal and good because it works from their point of view. They are highly experienced in using it and so they have overcome whatever limitations. They believe what they have done is better when we can demonstrate empirically that is not even just for self-serving interest.

Question 185

17. Describe how you might undertake the design phase of creating a new product in order to increase the chances that it will have good usability?

Answer 185

- In the design phase, we are actually creating the new product. We look at all the best bits and pieces of all the pre-existing ones and basically trying to combine them all into a sort of a new product where we are try create out initial prototype. We try it out on a few people and ask people’s opinion on it and all sort of things. Then, basically trying to improve it and get their opinions. The cycle repeat that we try to prepare to go through dozens and dozens of iterations and to converge a solution that you think it will solve all the problem.

Question 186

18. List three types of study that could be used to evaluate the usability of a product.

Answer 186

- Objective controlled experiments, comparing performance with the product with other products (is it actually better?), e.g. (Preece et al., 2012b, Christofidis et al., 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016). - Field studies – does the product lead to better outcomes in the real world (e.g. Joshi et al., 2014; Drower et al 2013)? - Obtaining opinions of stakeholders on the product (does the product have face validity?), using surveys etc (e.g. SECATS).

Question 187

1. Describe Svenson’s (1981) study on self-ratings of driving (methods, results, conclusions)

Answer 187

- A study was conducted by Svenson (1981) on university students, he measured them both in the US and Sweeden. His question was comparing your driving skill to other people in this experiment [university student] He found that the majority believe that they were more skill for safer than the median driver and that’s statically impossible. As recalled, the median is 50% more or 50% less. The majority are better than the median. There has to be an illusion there, at some level, not necessarily fair for every single person but at the group level, there must be an illusion there because we cannot have the majority of people better than the median. In conclusion, people think that they are safer and more skilful than average. This basically describing as a self enhancement bias as it has got an illusion, because it is statistically impossible.

Question 188

2. What is the confirmation bias?

Answer 188

- Confirmation bias (Nickerson, 1998) is the tendency to search for, interpret, favour, and recall information in a way that confirms one's pre-existing beliefs or hypotheses, while giving disproportionately less consideration to alternative possibilities.

Question 189

3. What is the positive attributional bias?

Answer 189

- Positive attributional bias is where you ask people to rate either positive or negative events on the extent to which they personally were responsible for it. If it is a positive event, they are much more likely to basically take credit for it. If it is a negative event, they will seek to blame some external factor.

Question 190

4. Which age groups showed the greatest positive attributional bias?

Answer 190

- The age groups showed the greatest positive attributional bias are children and older adults.

Question 191

5. What is the “sandwich” approach to feedback?

Answer 191

- The “sandwich” approach is a way of getting to deal with defensiveness. The idea is that when you give others feedback you say something positive then you give them negative criticism. You end off by finishing it with positive.

Question 192

6. What criticisms have been made of the “sandwich” approach to feedback?

Answer 192

- The main criticism is that the risk that you run is by saying something nice and then something nasty and end off by saying something nice. People will remember the nice things and they are going to forget about the nasty things.

Question 193

7. What does the acronym “SHARP” (referring to the structured feedback tool) stand for?

Answer 193

Before case - Set learning objectives [what would you like to get out of this case?] After case - How did it go ? What went well? Why? - Address concerns what did not go so well? Why? - Review learning points. [Were your learning objectives met for this case? What did you learn about your technical skills? What did you learn about your teamwork?] - Plan ahead [what actions can you take to improve your future practice?]

Question 194

8. What did Ahmed et al. (2013) find in their study of the SHARP structured feedback tool?

Answer 194

- Ahmed et al. (2013) found that the debriefing quality scores improved significantly after introducing the “sharp” tool.

Question 195

9. According to Salmoni et al (1984) when does “knowledge of results” feedback have a negative effect?

Answer 195

- According to Salmoni et al. (1984), they proposed that immediate frequent feedback especially when they are talking about in the context of motor skills, it helps with immediate performance but actually it can be bad for long term learning. The argument here is that people are actually becoming over reliant on that feedback they require. With the feedback that they have, it allows them to perform the skill. It becomes a crutch to pop up performance during learning and that’s no longer there.

Question 196

10. List five outcomes (out of the seven listed) which have been found to be associated with actively seeking out feedback?

Answer 196

- Higher performance rating - Better adaptation - Socialisation - Lower inclination to quit job - Greater goal attainment

Question 197

11. What difference did Blackwell et al (2007) find between students who believed intelligence was changeable and students who believed intelligence was fixed?

Answer 197

- Blackwell et al. (2007) found that high school students who believed intelligence is malleable and an upward great trajectory compared with those who believed it was fixed. They tend to have a great trajectory. This is known as the self- fulfilling prophecy where you look at the person who thinks that if they work more harder by doing more of these stuffs. It actually becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy at least in terms of their grades at school. They believe that they can improve, and they did show that they improved.

Question 198

12. What EXPERIMENTAL study did Blackwell et al (2007) conduct involving growth mindset training (methods, results)?

Answer 198

- Blackwell et al (2007) conducted a follow up experiment where they randomly assigned people to either get taught a growth mindset. They are being taught that if you can improve anything you want if you use the right sort of technique. It can hard or easy but you can improve any skills that you set your mind to improving The results indicated that those people who were taught with growth mindset ended up become highly motivated learners and getting better grades than the control groups who didn’t have or was not taught on the growth mindset.