Psych #2 - Memory Flashcards
1
Q
What are the processes of memory?
A
Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
2
Q
What is encoding?
A
Processes used to store information in memory
3
Q
What is storage?
A
Processes used to maintain information in memory
4
Q
What is retrieval?
A
Processes used to get information back out of memory
5
Q
What are some methods used to study memory?
A
Recall versus recognition tasks.
6
Q
What’s an example of a recall task?
A
A fill-in-the-blank question tests your recall. You have to generate an answer.
7
Q
What is an example of a recognition?
A
A multiple-choice question
8
Q
What is free recall?
A
Recall of the words you can from the list you saw previously
9
Q
What is serial recall?
A
Recall the names of all the previous presidents in the order they were elected. Need to recall order as well as item names
10
Q
What is cued recall?
A
Give participants some clue to trigger recall. Paired associates - Dishtowl-locomotive, switch-paper
11
Q
What are some explicit memory tasks?
A
This involves conscious recollection (can be recall or recognition) participants knows they are trying to retrieve information from their own memory
12
Q
What are implicit memory tasks?
A
This requires participants to complete a task. The performance of the task indirectly indicates memory.
13
Q
What is the main point to remember about recognition, recall, and relearning?
A
Tests of recognition and of time spent relearning demonstrate that we remember more than we can recall
14
Q
What is procedural memory?
A
Knowing how to do something. Like ride a bike.
15
Q
What is declarative memory?
A
Memory for facts (semantic) or events (autobiographical)
16
Q
What was Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed three-staged memory model?
A
- We first record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory.
- From there, we process information in short-term memory, where we encode it through rehearsal.
- Finally, information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval.
17
Q
What were Sperlings tests about the capacity of iconic (visual) memory?
A
Whole report procedure: flashed a matrix of letter quickly you had to just identify as many letters as possible and participants typically remembered 4 letters.
Partial Report Procedure: Flash a matrix of letters quickly and participants are told to report one row at a time. (bottom row). Participants were able to report any row requested.
18
Q
Sensory Memory
A
Can only recall a few items, but can select which ones from a larger set. Large capacity and held for a very short duration. The old information is pushed out by incoming. Attention determines what makes it into next stage.
18
Q
Short-term memory?
A
There is a limited capacity (7 or so items). Take in from sensory memory and long-term memory. persists as long as it is rehearsed.
19
Q
Main points from Peterson and Peterson duration of short-term memory
A
- Subjects memorized nonsense words (MJK, ZRW, BPH)
- Distractor task used during waiting period - count backwards
- When a cue was given, subjects tried to recall the letters.
- Main point if you are unable to rehearse information, it will not be passed to long-term memory, providing further support for multi-store model and the idea of discrete components.
20
Q
What is chunking?
A
It’s easier to chunk numbers into years like 1865, 1953, 1980 into our memory rather than just a string of digits.
21
Q
What are the main points about long-term memory?
A
It’s fed by short-term memory. It’s virtually unlimited capacity and unlimited duration. Getting into LTM takes effort.
22
Q
Bahrick’s main points from his high school experiment?
A
People who had graduated 25 years earlier could not recall many of their old classmates, but they could recognize 90 percent of their pictures and names.
23
Q
What was Craik and Lockharts main points from their levels of processing model of memory?
A
- Different ways we process information lead to different strengths of memories.
- Deep processing leads to better memory (elaborating according to meaning leads to a strong memory).
- Shallow processing emphasize the physical features of the stimulus. (memory trace is fragile and quickly decays)
- Distinguished between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal
24
What is the Craik and Watskin's study with target words?
Participants listened to lists of words. Task was to recall the word in the list which began with a particular. Varied the number of intervening words that came in between the words that began with the target letter.
25
What were the results of Craik and Watkin's study?
Recall of words was independent of the length of time. More intervening words didn't help. They found that maintenance rehearsal did not automatically lead to Long Term Memory.
26
What was Craik and Tulving's study?
Participants studied a list of words in 3 different ways. Is the word in capital letters, does the word rhyme with dog, does the word fit in this sentence?
27
What were the results of Craik and Tulving's study?
Most recalled sentences, then rhyme, and least with capital letters.
28
Why was the sentence in the Craik and Tulving study most effective?
This was most effective because the deeper, semantic processing triggering yielded a much better memory.
29
What is the self-reference effect?
Subjects have to determine if the words in a list describe them..Smart,talkative,diligent. High levels of recall, even if you through shy, diligent did not describe you but even higher recall for words that did describe. Bigger effect for positive traits.
30
What were some criticisms of the Long processing model?
They didn't have a good enough definition of what it means to be a deeper or shallow memory. Transfer appropriate processing effect (morris)
31
What was morris, bransford, and franks main ideas?
Two processing tasks: semantic and rhyme.
Two types of tests: standard yes/no recognition vs. rhyme test. memory performance also depends on the match between encoding processes and type of test.
32
What is a standard recognition test?
Old/new recognition test. Did you see train or tree first?
33
What is a rhyme recognition test?
Words that either rhymed or did not rhyme with studied words
34
What is the purpose of working memory?
Mental workspace whenever you need to retain some information while processing other information (mental arithmetic like bigs numbers being added up)
35
What is working memory?
Working memory refers to the system or systems involved in the temporary storage of information in the performance of cognitive skills such as reasoning, learning and comprehension
36
What is the evidence for Articulatory / Phonological loop?
It is used to maintain verbal information for a short time and for acoustic rehearsal.
Word length effect, effect of articulatory suppression, speed of speech effect, acoustic similarity effect (interfering with their ability to memorize information)
37
What is the speed of speech?
Memory span is better, For words that are pronounced quickly, for people who speak quickly, in languages where words are pronounced quickly (digit span)
38
What is the visuospatial buffer?
The component of working memory devoted to visual imagery and spatial processing. Information can enter the buffer either directly from visual perception or from long term memory
39
What is the central executive?
It supervises attention (focuses on relevant items and inhibiting irrelevant ones, do a task you wouldn't normally do and one that you would like to do)
Planning/Coordinating: Plans sequence of tasks to accomplish goals, schedules processes in complex tasks, often switches attention between different parts
Monitoring of mental activity: Updates and checks context to determine next step in sequence of parts
40
What were Hermann Ebbinghaus' main ideas?
He studied the learning and retention of nonsense syllables. He memorized lots of nonsense syllables until he had them all with 100% accuracy. Memorized all those words, he pulled them out randomly. He can immediately recall them then after about an hour he can't even recall half of them.
41
What is meaningless stimuli?
So according to Levels of Processing theory can't process them deeply.
42
Why do we forget?
It may just be failing to encode the information in the first place.
43
What is the lesson of depth of processing?
Shallow processing will not lead to stable memories. The way we process information create stronger or weaker memories.
44
What factors improve retention/recall?
Spacing of learning, organization of information, state/context dependent memory, Encoding specificity effect.
45
What is the encoding specificity effect?
Our ability to remember a stimulus depends on the similarity between the way a stimulus is processed at encoding and the way it is processed when tested.
46
What is the spacing effect?
Discovered by Ebbinghaus. Massed v. Distributed practice if you study for 3 hours one evening (massed) vs. study same material 1 hour for three evenings (distributed).
47
what is the organization of information?
Make associations is easier when you make groupings. LIke Europe, Italy, Rome, Florence and then another group of America, Washington, Dallas etc.
48
What is the Context and state dependent memory?
Learn words underwater while scuba diving or while on surface. Tested later underwater or on surface (Godden and Baddeley). Do better if test context matches learning context.
49
How does recall get affected by your physical context and internal state?
Recall is improved if internal physiological or emotional state is the same during testing and initial encoding.
50
What are state-dependent effects?
State-dependent is internal, physiological factors. It can be moods or emotions also. Information learned in depressed state, recall more if testing done during depressed state.
51
Key ideas from Nelson's critical manipulation
He did pairing associations. There was a two week delay. Example 38-dress, 77-scissors of the people that forgot the association it was way better if they relearned that association. They remembered it better than people that were taught something new. The better performance of participants in the same condition indicate that there was some memory left for "forgotten" items. Otherwise both groups would remember the same amount.
52
What is the decay theory?
Memory is weakened with disuse and simply the passage of time.
53
What is the inference theory?
Proactive - old memories interfere with recall of newer information.
Retroactive - new memories interfere with recall of older information
54
What is an example of retroactive inference?
You knew the rules to a card game, learn NEW card game, now you forget (mix up) rules to an old card game. New affects old.
55
What is an example of proactive interference?
Get a new bank account, you want to use the ATM but your old PIN number interferes with recall of your new PIN number. Old affects new.
56
What is explicit memory?
Conscious recollection and declarative knowledge (recall and recognition)
57
What is implicit memory?
Unconscious change. Includes procedural knowledge. Example skills. Priming
58
What is anterograde amnesia?
Inability to learn new explicit information after trauma (50 first dates/clive)
59
What is retrograde amnesia?
Inability to retrieve explicit information learned prior to trauma. Temporally-graded, memory for old information typically intact, more recent information more vulnerable.
60
What is the medical temporal lobe?
It's important for new explicit long term memory formation.
61
What are some main ideas from Patient HM?
Surgeons removed hippocampus/medical temporal lobe on both sides. Unable to learn new information: severe anterograde amnesia. But he could recall facts from before surgery, preserved language skills, recognized people (although not as well as before). Couldn't recognize new people, remember salient events. He had a normal working memory. can still carry on a conversation, but won't remember it if you leave the room and come back.
62
What is the role of hippocampus/medical temporal lobe?
Memories are not stored permanently in hippocampus (HM remembers old events - stored in cortex)
Hippocampus and related structures seem to be critical for initial encoding - they "bind" together activity in different parts of cortex
Once memories are "consolidated" don't need the hippocampus to retrieve them.
HM can remember things from his past - they've been consolidated and stored in the cortex.
63
What can HM and others still do?
They can still learn some things. However they do poor on explicit tests on memory.
They can learn things implicitly
Like classical conditioning --> blink puff of air (this is dependent upon the cerebellum).
Can form preferences for new music
64
What are types of explicit memories?
Semantic (facts) and episodic (personal episodes).
Related to the medical temporal lobe and hippocampal region
65
What are types of implicit memory?
Skills and Habits
Priming
Classical Conditional
Related to Striatum, cortex, cerebellum
66
What is eyewitness memory?
Eyewitness memory for complex events can be distorted because you can forget things that happened. Under real world conditions it's hard to properly encode the information. People often miss stuff or their information is unreliable.
67
Can you plant false memories?
College students were given a list of life events that had been reported by their parents. But some of the events were made up by the researchers. There was a good memory for real life events and at first they could not recall the bogus events. But as they attempted to recall the bogus events, it became real to some participants. 25% recalled a bogus memory.
68
What were results of the Garry, Manning, Loftus, and Sherman false memory experiment?
They had to fill out a life events exercise. Then they were led through imagination exercises and asked to fill out their life events again. The results showed that when participants imagine events that they said did not happen to them, they are more likely to say that they did happen to them.
69
What are some factors that affect false memories?
It's easier to implant plausible events than implausible.
Repetition of the false information helps.
"Imagination inflation" - don't just hear the event, asked to imagine it happening.
Some individuals appear to be more susceptible.
70
What did Sperling discover from his experiments?
He discovered iconic memory. We have a fleeting memory of visual stimuli.
71
What are some examples of implicit memory tasks?
Participants are exposed to a word list (of animals) after a delay the participants then complete word puzzles, they are not aware they are a type of memory test. Word fragment completion (c_e_ta_, and _e_bra) and then word stem completion (mon____ and pan___)
72
What is echoic memory?
Auditory stimuli
73
What is permastore memory (Bahricks)?
Extremely long-term or lasting memory that forms after longs periods of learning, training, experience
74
What is the serial position effect?
our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list.
75
What is the recency effect?
tendency to recall later words in a series
76
What is the primacy effect?
tendency to recall earlier words in a series
77
What is working memory?
refers to the system or systems involved in the temporary storage of information in the performance of cognitive skills such as reasoning, learning and comprehension
78
What is the Brook's interference study?
when remembering the layout of a letter, verbally describing it was easier than pointing.
when decoding sentences from memory it was easier to point than verbalize your response
79
What are the main ideas from the extraordinary memory of Toscanini or Mnemonist?
Toscanini - an orchestra conductor who had such an amazing memory he could conduct hundreds of symphonies and operas from only remembering them.
80
What is sensory synesthesia?
condition in which one type of stimulation evokes the sensation of another.
example - thinking of numbers and associating them with a color
81
Shepard's and Standing's studies of visual memory
Shepard - viewed 612 pictures, then shown two pictures and asked to indicate which one they had seen previously
vs.
Standing - presented viewers with 10,000 images and they performed with 80% accuracy in subsequent recognition memory task
82
What is the penny example: failures of memory?
presents viewers with an array of false pennies and one correct penny. The viewers are asked to recall from memory which penny is correctly formatted. Many viewers have trouble recalling what the penny, and everyday item we use, looks like
83
What is the Ebbinghaus forgetting curve?
You immediately recall something right after you learn it but then after about 30 days you can't remember it at all.
84
Mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.
85
Patient H.M. and Clive Wearing
Patient H.M. - Surgeons removed his hippocampus to stop seizures. could no longer learn new information
Clive Wearing - Originally a musician. got encephalitis. damaged hippocampus and nothing makes an impression, and he can only live in a moment to moment consciousness
86
Mirror image reading study
Participants
-Korsokoff's amnesics, and Patient N.A., versus normal subjects. Developed from a vitamin deficiency
-Severe Anterograde Amnesia (Can't learn new things)
Methods
-Experiment included 50% repeated words across 4 days
-Non-repeated words: implicit
-Repeated words: implicit + explicit
Results
-For new words, Normals and Amnesics improved about the same (implicit only)
-For old words, Normals were better than amnesiacs (implicit + explicit).
87
What are flashbulb memories?
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
88
What is priming?
an implicit memory effect in which exposure to one stimulus influences the response to another stimulus
89
Memory construction
the creation of false memories when induced to imagine it (misinformation effect); can lead to imagination inflation
90
What is childhood (infantile) amnesia?
the loss of early memories
91
Transfer appropriate processing (morris)
Levels of processing are incomplete
Semantic Task - filling in the blank in a sentence (supposedly leads to better memory)
-Only works sometimes
Rhyming Task - recalling something that rhymes with another
-works better than recognition task
