Psych 232 Flashcards
(97 cards)
1
Q
What is the rough definition of epistemology?
A
Why are people doing what they’re doing
2
Q
Who is associated with the scientific method as creating testable theories that can be proven false?
A
Karl Popper
3
Q
What does Dr. Charles Royal define Matauranga Maori as?
A
Knowing purposes and meanings in the world around us
4
Q
What is the primary job of scientists according to Dr. Charles Royal?
A
To share and nurture knowledge
5
Q
What should science be conducted with?
A
A purpose
6
Q
What does epistemology refer to in the context of science?
A
How you do science
7
Q
What is a theory in scientific terms?
A
A way to organize data, results, information to explain a phenomenon
8
Q
What is the method in scientific research?
A
The process of how we test predictions
9
Q
What are the steps in the deductive process?
A
Theory → Hypothesis → Data
10
Q
What are the steps in the inductive process?
A
Data → Pattern identification and generalization → Theory
11
Q
Can the deductive and inductive processes be combined?
A
Yes
12
Q
What are the goals of psychology?
A
- Describing
- Predicting
- Explaining
- Controlling
13
Q
What does describing in psychology involve?
A
Noting and tracking something that allows you to describe it to someone (generally with stats)
14
Q
What does predicting in psychology involve?
A
Being able to predict an action or phenomenon based on observable factors
15
Q
What does explaining in psychology involve?
A
Accumulating enough evidence to explain why something is the way that it is
16
Q
What does controlling in psychology involve?
A
How to control an action or phenomenon
17
Q
What is the null hypothesis in statistical testing?
A
A statement that the observed phenomenon does not have an effect or difference
18
Q
Can you prove the null hypothesis?
A
No, you can only reject the null hypothesis
19
Q
What should scientists always say regarding their hypotheses?
A
It is probable
20
Q
Who was one of the first to measure people?
A
Adolphe Quetelet
21
Q
What follows after defining the goal/research question in the measurement process?
A
Operationalization
22
Q
What is essential for operationalization?
A
Must properly define what it is that you are measuring, BE SPECIFIC and BE CONSISTENT
23
Q
What are the two main categories for measurement scale types?
A
Categorical/Nominal and Continuous
24
Q
What is a categorical/nominal scale?
A
Groups or categories that have labels
25
What is an ordinal/ranked scale?
Data that increase/decrease in order without mathematically meaningful distances between each point
26
What are the types of continuous measurement scale?
Interval and ratio scales
27
What characterizes an interval scale?
Equally-sized distances between measurement points with no meaningful zero point
28
What defines a ratio scale?
Equally-sized distances between measurement points where the zero point means absence of x
29
Which measurement scale type uses the mode for analysis?
Categorical
30
Which measurement scale type typically uses the median?
Ordinal
31
Which measurement scale type uses the mean for analysis?
Continuous (Interval or Ratio)
32
What is the mode in statistical terms?
Most common response
33
What is the median?
The midpoint response (50% of the sample are above/below this point)
34
How is the mean defined?
A measure of the arithmetic average
35
What does standard deviation measure?
The difference of your measurements from the mean (How spread out is your sample?)
36
Fill in the blank: The _______ is a measure of the difference of your measurements from the mean.
Standard Deviation/Variance
37
What is item reliability?
Ensuring each item in a scale measures the same thing.
38
What is psychological science?
The study of how and why people think, feel, and behave.
39
What are the key components of the scientific process?
Epistemology → Theory → Method.
40
What is a null hypothesis?
A statement that there is no effect or no difference (e.g., lobsters have not grown larger over time).
41
What are the steps in measurement?
Research Question → Operationalization → Measurement → Reliability & Validity.
42
What is operationalization?
Defining what you are measuring in a specific and consistent way.
43
What are the types of measurement scales?
Nominal (Categorical): Labels or categories. Ordinal: Ranked data without meaningful distances. Interval: Equal distances between points, no meaningful zero. Ratio: Equal distances with a meaningful zero.
44
What is test-retest reliability?
Checking if repeated measurements produce the same result.
45
What is observer reliability?
Ensuring different raters make consistent ratings.
46
What are the four types of validity
Construct Validity: Does it match the theory? Internal Validity: Is it the best design for the question? External Validity: Does it apply to real-world situations? Statistical Validity: Ensured through appropriate analyses. Ethical Principles in Research
47
What are the core ethical principles in psychological research?
Respect (Autonomy), Beneficence, and Justice.
48
What is informed consent?
Providing participants with study details, risks, benefits, and withdrawal rights.
49
What is beneficence in research?
Maximizing benefits and minimizing harm for participants.
50
What is justice in research?
Ensuring fair selection and distribution of risks/benefits across participants.
51
What are ceiling and floor effects?
Ceiling effect: Too easy, everyone answers high.Floor effect: Too hard, everyone answers low.
52
What is response bias?
Participants answering in ways that seem socially acceptable or expected by the researcher.
53
How can researchers reduce acquiescence bias?
Use multiple items measuring the same thing. Use positively and negatively worded questions. Avoid negatives like "not." Principal Components Analysis (PCA)
54
What is the purpose of PCA?
To summarize data by identifying patterns in responses.
55
What are the assumptions for PCA?
Sphericity: Items must have enough variance (Bartlett’s test must be significant). Sampling Adequacy: Items should have unique variance (Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin > 0.5).
56
What is the replication crisis?
The issue where only 40-50% of psychological studies replicate similar results.
57
What are QRPs (Questionable Research Practices)?
P-hacking: Manipulating analysis to get a significant result. HARKing: Forming hypotheses after seeing results. File-drawer problem: Not publishing non-significant findings.
58
What are solutions for better science?
Pre-registration: Declaring study plans before data collection. Open Science: Sharing materials, data, and publications freely.
59
What are the different sampling methods?
Random Sampling: Everyone has an equal chance. Stratified Sampling: Population divided into groups, then sampled. Purposive Sampling: Targeted selection. Convenience Sampling: Choosing available participants.
60
What is sampling bias?
Bias from who sees, agrees to, and completes the study.
61
What does the Central Limit Theorem state?
Sample means from a population will be normally distributed, even if the population itself is not, given a sufficiently large sample size (usually n ≥ 30).
62
Why do quantitative analyses assume normality?
Many statistical tests rely on normal distributions to interpret results correctly using the mean and standard deviation.
63
What does the coefficient of determination (R²) represent?
The proportion of variance in one variable explained by another, ranging from 0 to 1.
64
What’s the difference between Pearson’s and Spearman’s correlation?
Pearson’s (r): Measures linear relationships. Spearman’s (rs): Measures nonlinear or ordinal relationships.
65
What are residuals in regression analysis?
The vertical distances between observed values and the regression line, representing errors in prediction.
66
What is priming in survey responses?
When exposure to one question influences responses to later ones (e.g., stereotype threat).
67
How can researchers reduce priming effects
Move impactful questions to later sections. Randomize question order.
68
What is the bogus pipeline method?
A technique where participants are led to believe their responses are being monitored by a lie detector to reduce social desirability bias.
69
What percentage of psychology studies failed to replicate in major replication efforts?
Around 40-50% showed weaker or non-significant results when re-tested.
70
What is p-hacking?
Manipulating statistical analysis until a desired significant result is achieved.
71
What is HARKing?
Hypothesizing After Results are Known—creating hypotheses based on already observed data rather than before the study.
72
What is the file-drawer problem?
When researchers do not publish non-significant or "uninteresting" results, leading to biased literature.
73
What is stratified sampling?
Dividing the population into subgroups and sampling randomly from each group.
74
How does convenience sampling introduce bias?
It selects participants based on ease of access rather than randomness, limiting generalizability.
75
What does a negatively skewed distribution look like?
A long left tail, with most data clustered at higher values.
76
What does a positively skewed distribution look like?
A long right tail, with most data clustered at lower values.
77
What are the four key ethical principles under the Treaty of Waitangi for research in New Zealand?
Protection, Partnership, Practice, and Participation.
78
When conducting research with indigenous groups, what should researchers do?
Engage in participatory research, consult with relevant communities, and respect cultural customs.
79
How is morality different from ethics?
Morality is a personal sense of right and wrong, while ethics are structured guidelines for research integrity.
80
What is the difference between PCA and exploratory factor analysis (EFA)?
PCA is a data reduction method, while EFA seeks to identify underlying psychological constructs.
81
What two statistical tests are used to check PCA assumptions
Bartlett’s test: Checks if variables are correlated enough for PCA. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test: Assesses sampling adequacy (values > 0.5 are acceptable).
82
What is the scree plot used for in PCA?
To determine the optimal number of components by finding the "elbow" before the curve flattens.
83
Why can’t we prove the null hypothesis?
Science does not prove anything absolutely; it only rejects or fails to reject hypotheses.
84
What is a Type I error?
Rejecting a true null hypothesis (false positive).
85
What is a Type II error?;
Failing to reject a false null hypothesis (false negative).
86
What is statistical power?
The probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis when it is false.
87
What does a Cronbach’s Alpha of > 0.7 indicate?
Acceptable internal consistency for a scale.
88
What is the difference between internal and external validity?
Internal validity: Whether the study design properly isolates cause-and-effect relationships. External validity: Whether findings generalize to the real world.
89
What is the difference between reliability and validity?
Reliability: Consistency of measurement. Validity: Accuracy of measurement.
90
What is selection bias?
When the sample is not representative of the population.
91
What is experimenter bias?
When researchers' expectations influence participants’ responses or study results.
92
What is a double-blind study?
A study where both participants and researchers do not know the condition assignments, reducing bias.
93
What is the difference between formative and reflective scales?
Formative: Items combine to define the construct. Reflective: Items are influenced by an underlying construct.
94
What is reverse coding in surveys?
Rewording and scoring negatively phrased questions to avoid response bias.
95
What does a box plot show?
Distribution of data, including median, quartiles, and potential outliers.
96
What is the purpose of a histogram?
To visualize the frequency distribution of a dataset.
97
What does an R² value of 0.85 mean?
85% of the variance in the dependent variable is explained by the independent variable.
