Psych Midterm 2!! Flashcards

Question

Phocomelia

Answer 1

impaired like missing parts of hands and feet

Answer 2

babies born earlier than 36 weeks - children born at 25 weeks have a little over 50% chance of surviving - however, because fetal development happens quickly, children born at 30 weeks have a 95% chance of survival - survival is the first step, followed by possible short and long term negative effects on psychological and cognitive functioning

Answer 3

tests depth perception in infants

Answer 4

sucking - helps infant begin feeding

Answer 5

"startle" - when infants lose support of their head - they reach their hands up and then in a hugging motion

Answer 6

safely holding onto their caregiver

Answer 7

leg straightens at onset of pressure on sore of foot

Answer 8

rooting moro grasping stepping

Answer 9

forming of new synaptic connections - through infancy and childhood - together with synaptic pruning increase neural efficiency

Answer 10

loss of weak nerve cell connections, accelerates during brain development through infancy and childhood - together with synaptogenesis - increase neural efficiency

Answer 11

- an interesting support that was designed for premies - baby takes as much time as it can tolerate outside of the incubator to do: - skin-to-skin contact of a parent and preemie - holding technique, chest to chest, in an upright position where the baby is only wearing a diaper on the parent's bare chest - non-invasive, supportive, and natural early intervention for preterm infants - four fold decrease in apnea - improves survival rates

Answer 12

Infants are born with a large set of automatic motor behaviours (reflexes) Sucking and rooting reflexes are essential for feeding ❖The Progression of Motor Development In contrast to reflexes, the development of motor skills is dependent on practice and deliberate effort. Most infants develop motor skills in a sequence. The ages indicated are averages - infants may develop any of these milestones a few months earlier or later than the average. Cross-cultural differences in development

Answer 13

- Better working memory ❖Between ages 8 and 10, cognitive functions are increasingly localized in distinct neural systems ❖Prefrontal-cortical areas – rapid growth, increase in executive functioning skills ❖Left cerebral hemisphere more active – language and knowledge ❖Inner brain: Hippocampus – memory and images of space Amygdala – novelty and emotional information ❖Better capacity in terms of perceptual motor coordination Cerebellum – balance and control of body movement

Answer 14

Body growth slows after the first two years Child’s shape becomes more streamlined Wide range of growth Individual differences more apparent More adult proportions Loss of body fat compared to infants Skeletal changes continue: New epiphyses, or growth centers in which cartilage hardens into bone, emerge Teeth All primary by 3 years old Begin to lose around 5-6 years old

Answer 15

Infants are born with a large set of automatic motor behaviours (reflexes) Sucking and rooting reflexes are essential for feeding ❖The Progression of Motor Development In contrast to reflexes, the development of motor skills is dependent on practice and deliberate effort. Most infants develop motor skills in a sequence. The ages indicated are averages - infants may develop any of these milestones a few months earlier or later than the average. Cross-cultural differences in development

Answer 16

Human infants are born almost completely helpless and require extended care as they develop their senses, strength, and coordination. ❖ Five senses functional at birth but not fully developed. Hearing is better developed than vision. Can discriminate, prefer certain odours, and tastes. ❖The human face holds particular importance for newborns. Newborns will imitate the facial expressions of others. Newborns prefer to look at stimuli that look like faces, compared to stimuli that have all the same features but are scrambled so that they don’t look like faces

Answer 17

❖Advances in fine motor skills occur due to the amount of myelin in the brain increasing significantly between the ages of 6 and 8 ➢ Better finger dexterity, control, coordination and eye hand coordination ❖Children’ increase in fine motor development enables them to develop new interests: ➢ build model cars, braid friendship bracelets, learn to play musical instruments ➢ use of computers/ tablets and phones - (academics, and social media) ❖Printing and Writing – greater legibility ❖Drawing – greater organization, representation, and detail (more purposeful)

Answer 18

▪Adolescent self-image is formed by perceptions of one’s place in the social world ▪Acceptance by peers: ▪ Has a major impact on socialization ▪ Close affiliation with a high-status peer crowd protects against depression and other negative psychological symptoms ▪Poor peer relations: ▪ Related to high social anxiety ▪Types of Friends: ▪ Controversial status youth ▪ Aggressive kids who are either highly liked or intensely disliked by their peers ▪ This sort of youth is most likely to engage in antisocial behavior

Answer 19

- continuous sequential process from conception to death = during the first year, growth is very rapid - growth levels off during the preschool and elementary-school years - growth is rapid again in early adolescence - not all body parts grow in the same rate at the same time - each child grows in his/her own unique way - each stage of growth and development is affected by the preceding types of deveopment

Answer 20

Proximodistal trend Cephalocaudal trend Epiphyses

Answer 21

- near to far - head, chest and trunk grow ahead of extremeties

Answer 22

head to tail - head develops more rapidly than lower part of the body

Answer 23

- a physical growth trend - in pre-natal development, bones form as cartilage - shortly before birth turn into bone through epiphyses (hard at each end and middle)

Answer 24

- Development occurs in a relatively orderly sequence, with later abilities, skills, and knowledge building on those already acquired Example: crawl, pull to stand, steps, walking Example: cooing, sounds, approximations, words, phrases, sentences ❖Development proceeds at varying rates from child to child as well as unevenly within different areas of each child’s functioning Own pattern and timing of growth Unique personality, temperament and learning style Varied experiences and family background ❖Early experiences have both cumulative and delayed effects on individual’s development; optimal periods exist for certain types of development and learning Example: First 3 years optimal for verbal language

Answer 25

Infants are born with a large set of automatic motor behaviours (reflexes) Sucking and rooting reflexes are essential for feeding ❖The Progression of Motor Development In contrast to reflexes, the development of motor skills is dependent on practice and deliberate effort. Most infants develop motor skills in a sequence. The ages indicated are averages - infants may develop any of these milestones a few months earlier or later than the average. Cross-cultural differences in development

Answer 26

after the first two years Child’s shape becomes more streamlined Wide range of growth Individual differences more apparent More adult proportions Loss of body fat compared to infants Skeletal changes continue: New epiphyses, or growth centers in which cartilage hardens into bone, emerge

Answer 27

- All primary by 3 years old - Begin to lose around 5-6 years old

Answer 28

Better working memory ❖Between ages 8 and 10, cognitive functions are increasingly localized in distinct neural systems ❖Prefrontal-cortical areas – rapid growth, increase in executive functioning skills ❖Left cerebral hemisphere more active – language and knowledge ❖Inner brain: Hippocampus – memory and images of space Amygdala – novelty and emotional information ❖Better capacity in terms of perceptual motor coordination Cerebellum – balance and control of body movement

Answer 29

Engage in more complex motor skills: Balancing Running Jumping Skipping Throwing Swinging Hopping ❖Greater balance, flexibility, speed and endurance

Answer 30

More dexterity Precise, delicate ❖Self-help skills Dressing Feeding Shoe tying ❖Gripping Use varied grips depending on task More developed by end of early childhood ❖Handedness About 90% right-handed

Answer 31

The brain continues to grow and develop during middle childhood ❖Weight of the brain in middle childhood increases by 10%: ❖ White matter rises steadily, especially in the prefrontal cortex, parietal lobes, and corpus callosum ❖ Gray matter peaks in middle childhood and then declines as a result of synaptic pruning ❖Synaptic pruning and accompanying reorganization and selection of brain circuits lead to more effective information processing ❖Neurotransmitters and hormones may affect brain development and functioning

Answer 32

White matter rises steadily, especially in the prefrontal cortex, parietal lobes, and corpus callosum ❖ Gray matter peaks in middle childhood and then declines as a result of synaptic pruning

Answer 33

Advances in fine motor skills occur due to the amount of myelin in the brain increasing significantly between the ages of 6 and 8 ➢ Better finger dexterity, control, coordination and eye hand coordination ❖Children’ increase in fine motor development enables them to develop new interests: ➢ build model cars, braid friendship bracelets, learn to play musical instruments ➢ use of computers/ tablets and phones - (academics, and social media) ❖Printing and Writing – greater legibility ❖Drawing – greater organization, representation, and detail (more purposeful)

Answer 34

Puberty marks the biological start of adolescence * Events and timing of sexual maturation differ for boys and girls - Adolescents become taller, heavier, and experience changes in both primary and secondary sex characteristics -

Answer 35

genes, nutrition, and health

Answer 36

- Brain almost adult size by adolescence ❖Synaptic pruning: less-used circuits eliminated ❖Myelination leads to greater efficiency ❖Decision-making areas of cortex mature slowly ❖“Pleasure centers” mature more quickly

Answer 37

▪Adolescent self-image is formed by perceptions of one’s place in the social world ▪Acceptance by peers: ▪ Has a major impact on socialization ▪ Close affiliation with a high-status peer crowd protects against depression and other negative psychological symptoms ▪Poor peer relations: ▪ Related to high social anxiety ▪Types of Friends: ▪ Controversial status youth ▪ Aggressive kids who are either highly liked or intensely disliked by their peers ▪ This sort of youth is most likely to engage in antisocial behavior

Answer 38

Cognition Activity of knowing and the mental processes used to acquire knowledge and solve problems ❖Cognitive development Changes that occur in mental skills and abilities over the course of life

Answer 39

Stage-like theory, domain-general ❖Children construct their knowledge ❖Schema Cognitive structures or concepts used to identify and interpret objects, events, information in environment, an organized ways of making sense of experience . ❖ Children use assimilation to acquire new knowledge within a stage Absorb knowledge into current structures ❖ When a child can no longer assimilate new information, accommodation occurs Process of altering a belief to make it more compatible with experience ❖Organization and Equilibrium: Rearranging existing schema into more complex ones

Answer 40

Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete operational Formal operational

Answer 41

changes in the body part of reproduction (menstration)

Answer 42

changes in the body not a part of reproduction (ex. growth of pubic hair, muscle in boys and breasts in girls)

Answer 43

onset of menstruation (usually 12)

Answer 44

strategy of dealing with emotions where we learn to look at our experience through a different frame - like turning something negative into a learning experience

Answer 45

putting off immediate temptations in order to focus on long term goals

Answer 46

abstract reasoning and logic and higher cognitive abilities (starts to go up after age 12)

Answer 47

abstract reasoning and logic and higher cognitive abilities (starts to go up after age 12)

Answer 48

moral development learning right from wrong

Answer 49

preconventional conventional postconventional

Answer 50

- people reason based on self-interest, avoiding punishment

Answer 51

people reason based on social conventions (traditions), can involve authority figures "Because mom said so"

Answer 52

Level of reasoning that considers justice and fairness

Answer 53

windows of time during which exposure to a specific type of environmental stimulation is needed for normal development of a specific ability ex. becoming fluent in a language --> should be introduced to that language in really early years

Answer 54

fitting new information into the belief system you already posses ex. all girls have long hair - that person has short hair but is a girl! (azlan)

Answer 55

creative process where people modify their belief structures based on experience ex. that girl has short hair, so girls can have short hair

Answer 56

stage of cognitive development by Piaget - Birth - 2 yrs - cognitive experience based on direct sensory experience w world and motor movements - object permanence is the milestone of this stage - sensory inputs like vision and hearing and motor capabilities become more coordinated - infants develop sensorimotor schemes - this stage is further subdivided into six stages

Answer 57

An organized pattern of action (or behaviour) with which the infant interacts and comes to know the world. Examples: Sucking and Grasping

Answer 58

Understanding that objects continue to exist when they are not in sensory or motor contact with the object, as revealed by retrieval of hidden objects ❖*May be present within first few months - Renée Baillargeon’s studies - earlier than Piaget conceptualized. ❖Mastery is gradual, more complex with age as changes take place in the frontal and prefrontal cortex: Awareness not yet complete: A-not-B search error

Answer 59

A-not-B search error: continuing to search for an object in its first hiding place even after seeing it moved Full understanding revealed by problems involving invisible displacement

Answer 60

One of Piaget's stages of cognitive development - 2-7yrs - as children move from the sensorimotor to the preoperational stage, cognitive representational activity increases Use of symbols increases: symbolic function, symbolic/pretend play - children during this stage did not yet have the ability to think logically - mastering conservation - egocentrism

Answer 61

knowledge that the quantity or amount of an object is not the same as the physical arrangement and appearance of that object

Answer 62

- during preoperational stage - focus only on their own viewpoint or perspective - unable to think about others' symbolic viewpoints from one's own (ex. if they see cows from their side of the mountain, they feel the child also sees the cows) - Piaget believed preschoolers' egocentric bias prevents them from accommodating or reflecting on and revising their limited reasoning

Answer 63

Due to 2 key aspects: 1. Centration: focusing on one aspect of a situation while neglecting other important features 2. Irreversibility: an inability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem and then reverse direction, returning to the starting point

Answer 64

if you have more than her, and i have more than you, then I also have more than her

Answer 65

One of Piaget's stages of cognitive development - 7-11 yrs - children develop skills in logical thinking and manipulating numbers (transitivity property) - now we are able to conserve (decentration - nolonger focus solely on one aspect and reversibility (can reverse thinking))

Answer 66

These are used in concrete operational stage of cognitive development - numbers - categories of objects - spatial relations among objects - cognitive maps

Answer 67

11+ yrs - Piaget's final stage of cognitive development - children can think more rationally and systematically - they can think about abstract concepts and hypothetical events, using cognitive skills such as inductive reasoning Ex. start with a theory about what produces a particular outcome and then deduce explanations for specific situations in which they see that particular outcome -

Answer 68

Helped us to understand that children are fundamentally different from adults – think differently within cognitive limitations related to stage. ❖Founded the discipline of cognitive development ❖Emphasized children’s active involvement in their development ❖Attempted to explain; not just describe development ❖Influenced research in other areas of development (social, emotional)

Answer 69

Due to the limited technology available to Piaget, the limited # of children he observed, and a limited understanding of culture, Piaget underestimated children’s cognitive abilities ❖Piaget indicated all children go through sequential stages – but is development sequential and something all children go through uniformly? For example - many cognitive changes in children are gradual and continuous rather than abrupt and stage-like Various aspects of children’s cognition change unevenly ❖Culturally biased methods (focused on Western-educated samples)

Answer 70

Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Development Cognitive development is inseparable from social and cultural contexts Cognitive development occurs the support of more knowledgeable others in a child’s world – MKOs May vary from culture to culture

Answer 71

- zone of proximal development - scaffolding - importance of language

Answer 72

difference between what a child can do alone/independently or with assistance - part of vygotsky's sociocultural theory of development

Answer 73

- part of vygotsky's sociocultural theory of development The support provided initially to facilitate a child’s learning of a skill may be a lot – verbal, hand over hand, demonstration, imitation - It's a teaching strategy As the child develops the skill, the scaffolding gets less until the child can do the skill independently

Answer 74

Language plays an important role in cognitive development Inner speech or thought is used for mental reasoning and regulate own behaviour External speech is used to converse with others – helping a child to learn - part of vygotsky's theory

Answer 75

His Sociocultural Theory of Development Vygotsky’s work has had a significant effect on aspects such as education ❖Cooperative/collaborative learning Educational implications Active collaboration with family Active collaboration with peers

Answer 76

decrease in responding with repeated exposure to an event - like walking the same route every day

Answer 77

if stimulus suddenly changes -> increase in responsiveness with presentation of new stimulus - like walking to school and there's a new bright car in a driveway

Answer 78

Social and emotional development is a lifelong process (from birth to death) that in significantly important to helping people across the lifespan learn to understand, express, and manage their emotions, and to form and maintain healthy relationships with others.

Answer 79

thinking people have and demonstrate about the thoughts, feelings, motives and behaviours of themselves and other people.

Answer 80

one’s perceptions of one’s unique attributes or traits - a combination of physical and psychological attributes

Answer 81

begins at birth significant development during toddler's development

Answer 82

- Most 12-month-olds touch the mark on the mirror - Most 15-month-olds touch the mark on their face; indicating they recognize the infant in the mirror as themselves

Answer 83

The ‘social smile’ appears around 4 weeks – happiness ❖ Stranger anxiety starts at 8-9 months, peaks at 12-15 months ❖ Infants experience diverse emotions – sometimes all at once ❖ Through the first year of life infants begin to refine their emotional expression ❖ Infants develop interest in other people very quickly after birth ❖ An infant’s temperament is a key factor in emotional regulation but also social relationships - basic emotional style that appears early in development and is largely genetic in origin ❖ Development of the Self-Awareness- the ability to recognize one’s individuality.

Answer 84

- part of social emotional development Attachment describes a close reciprocal emotional relationship between two people; people we feel closest to across the lifespan. ❖Attachment is not a trait or skill. ❖It is the quality of the inter-dependent, bidirectional relationship of individuals, across the lifespan. ❖Attachment - emotional security is a strong need maintained by the trust in the availability and responsiveness of key individuals in our lives during times of distress. This sense of security also extends to relationships across the life span. With development, this security shifts in emphasis of need.

Answer 85

With parental leaves being shared by parents, there is an increasing # of fathers are becoming attachment figure

Answer 86

Attachment Styles were not created by Bowly in his original conceptualization of attachment. ❖They were created by Mary Ainsworth. Type A Secure Type B Insecure avoidant Type C Insecure anxious ambivalent ❖ They have been seen as the problem with attachment – not culturally relevant. ❖Solomon and George conceptualized the 4th style of parenting Type D Disorganised (not Ainsworth’s work

Answer 87

Solomon and George conceptualized the 4th style of parenting Type D Disorganised (not Ainsworth’s work)

Answer 88

The strange situation developed by Mary Ainsworth involved: Laboratory test of eight episodes Simulates caregiver–infant interactions in everyday life Infant’s behaviour is recorded Attachment style can be determined ❖IMPORTANT - that the strange situation has inherent problems. Research indicates the strange situation is not an appropriate measure of attachment and not culturally relevant

Answer 89

Generally preschool and school age children are much better able to regulate their emotions and understand the emotions of others. ❖Differences in children’s social and emotional development can be influenced by culture, trust in relationships, and biological factors (temperament). ❖Friendships often become important in childhood - Continued development of the Self- Awareness ❖Self esteem and self concept

Answer 90

secure attachment parenting style cultural differences

Answer 91

Transition between childhood and adulthood ❖ Spans 12 – 25 years of age World Health Organization – increased age of adolescence due to the fact that the brain (prefrontal cortex) is not fully developed until 25 ❖ Puberty ❖ Primary and secondary sex traits ❖ Estrogens and androgens are present in both sexes, though the ratios are different Estrogens higher in women, androgens higher in men

Answer 92

monkeys taken away from mother clung to cloth pads rather than wire mother regardless of which one had food

Answer 93

collection of several systems that store information in different forms for different amounts of time

Answer 94

describes memory: three memories stores: sensory, short-term and long term memory jk

Answer 95

shift processes from one memory store to another (represented by arrows in figure 7.1)

Answer 96

selects with information will be passed onto Short term memory

Answer 97

how we narrow info we receive in STM - process of storing infor in the LTM system

Answer 98

brings infor from LTM back into STM - happens when you become aware of long term memories - not perfect

Answer 99

visual form of sensory memory (0.5-1sec)

Answer 100

auditory form of sensory memory (5-10sec)

Answer 101

memory store that accurately holds perceptual info for a brief amount of time the shortest memory ex. access codes - includes iconic memory and echoic memory

Answer 102

infancy and adolescence

Answer 103

short term memory store - limited capacity and duration (30 seconds) Very brief, 5-20 seconds * STM in adults is usually 7 pieces of information * Rehearsal extends the duration of STM information * Can extend our STM span by using chunking information * Chunking is the organization of a large body of information into smaller, more meaningful groups

Answer 104

organizing smaller units of information into larger more meaningful units (textbook definition) breaking larger pieces of information into chunks (Pitt's definition)

Answer 105

long term memory holds memories for extended periods of time, if not permanentaly - no capacity limitation that we know of May last decades or a lifetime (perma-store) * Long-term memory errors tend to be semantic (meaning- related) whereas short-term memory errors tend to be acoustic

Answer 106

Tip of tongue phenomenon - when a word is on the tip of your tongue - we're able to retrieve similar sounding words or words that start with that same letter, but can't retrieve the word you want

Answer 107

we remember only first few and last few (like of a list of numbers) but not so much the middle ones

Answer 108

process in which the first information is learned, but leaves less room for later learned info/new info

Answer 109

most recently learned info overshadows some older memories you've not yet made into long-term memory

Answer 110

- an active short term memory system - Baddely, 1992 often thought of as a workspace within the mind that is used to carry out operations, store information, and make decisions on a moment-by-moment basis this includes the central excecutive = phenological loop, episodic buffer and visuospacial skechpad

Answer 111

decides which working memory store is most important at a given time Ex. when driving and have to remember number on the radio that they called - choose btw ponological loop, episodic buffer and visuospacial sketchpad

Answer 112

storage component of working memory that relies on rehearsal and stores infor as sounds, auditory code like when you say the same number over and over again in your head

Answer 113

repeating information until you do not need to remember it anymore

Answer 114

ppl remember more one syllable words than 4 or 5 syllable words

Answer 115

storage component of working memory that maintains visual images and spatial layouts in a visuospatial code

Answer 116

combining visual features into a single unit

Answer 117

storage component of working memory that combines the images and sounds from other two components into a coherent, story-like episode

Answer 118

- aka explicit memory - branch of long term memory - explicit memories that we are consciously aware of and that can be verbalized: including facts about the world and our own personal experiences Includes memories that are conscious or intentionally remembered * Divided into two subparts: 1. Episodic memory - stores memories of personally experienced events 2. Semantic memory - stores facts and information

Answer 119

- aka implicit memory actions or behaviours that you can remember or perform without awareness a subsystem of long term memory Includes memories that are unconscious or automatic, and aren’t intentionally remembered * Divided into two subparts: 1. Procedural: memory - how to do things, such as motor skills, habits – brushing teeth, singing a familiar song 2. Priming: an individual's exposure to stimuli influences their subsequent response to stimulus without being aware of the connection – simple classical conditioned responses PSYC1000 W 25 Dr. G. Pitt 22

Answer 120

- part of PIaget's theory of cognitive development - like files in brain: when you learn something new it gets put in a file - and may have a pre-existing file and can build on this ex. like learning to drive standard after automatic (Nazli)

Answer 121

declarative memories that seem to be organized around episodes and are recalled from first person ex. like recalling episodes of your life like shoulder dislocation

Answer 122

declarative memories that include facts about the world - can be active at the same time as episodic memory

Answer 123

branch of non-declarative memory learned through patterns of muscle movements ex. How to walk, tie shoes, drive car ex. is classical conditioning

Answer 124

LTP demonstrates there is increase in connective and transmission of nerve signals btw nerves that fire together - like Hebbs law

Answer 125

process of converting short term to long term memories "Use it or loose it" - happens in hippocampus

Answer 126

profound loss of at least one form of memory

Answer 127

inability to form new memories for evens occurring after a brain injury - inability to consolidate (STM to LTM) - ex. H. M.

Answer 128

Sperling flashed a group of letters for 1/20 of a second. * People could recall only half of the letters * When he signaled to recall a particular row immediately after the letters disappeared with a specific tone, people could do so with near-perfect accuracynumbers

Answer 129

hippocampus functions to update, strengthen or modify existing long term memories - like during SLGs

Answer 130

phenomenon where long-term declarative memories are distributed throughout cortex of brain, rather than being localized at one region

Answer 131

memory for events preceding trauma or injury is lost ex. forgetting everything before an accident like in Gordon Korman's book, Restart

Answer 132

prolonging exposure to information by thinking about its meaning and elaborating on it - like in Ashlyn's SLGs

Answer 133

Levels of processing our ability to recall information is most directly related to how information was initially processed - can be shallow or deep

Answer 134

encoding more superficial aspects of a stimulus, like sound or spelling of word (flash cards when you don't know the meaning just memorized the words)

Answer 135

related to encoding information on items meaning or function - like in SLGs

Answer 136

when you think of information in terms of how it relates to you, or how useful it is to you - helps us remember later like me trying to relate to all these terms bro LOL

Answer 137

Refers to learning that is not directly observable learning that is not immediately expressed by a response until the organism is reinforced for doing so (like Mickey not doing "down" command until he is offered a treat, even though he knows how , or mice not running a maze unless there's cheese at the other end or me not spitting facts until I have an exam and need to do so) Tolman & Honzik proposed that humans (as well as other animals) display latent learning

Answer 138

stimulus-organism-response theory early view of cognitive model each person or organism will think about or interpret a situation in a slightly different way ex. Erin being offended by a joke, while I find it funny

Answer 139

changes in behaviour and knowledge that result from watching others ex. watching people present and read slides and do a goood job (what did they do that worked well) Not based on behaviourism – or conditioning * Don’t have to engage in trial and error to learn something new

Answer 140

part of social theory of learning by bandura (latent learing) 1. attention to the act or behavior 2. memory for it 3. ability to reproduce it 4. motivation to do so

Answer 141

recreating someone's motor behaviour or expression, often to accomplish a specific goal Role of mirror neurons – active during observational learning * Become activated when an animal observes or performs an action can be bad: violence, swearing can be good: studying, manners

Answer 142

process in which a response that originally occured for a specific stimulus also occurs for different, though similar, stimuli ex: dogs salivate to other noises that sound like a bell (amount was less, but still)

Answer 143

reduction of the conditioned response when a conditionned and unconditionned stimulus no longer occur together ex. if sound of bell or clicking is played and food no longer follows --> salivation will occur less and less until not at all (extinct)

Answer 144

initial phase of learning in which a response is established/aquired

Answer 145

reoccurrence of a previously extinct conditioned response, typically after some time has passed since extinction

Answer 146

are also classical conditioning emotional and physiological responses that develop to a specific object or situation ex: conditioning little Albert to fear

Answer 147

the acquired dislike or disgust for a food or drink because it was paired with illness part of classical conditioning es. Ronan not liking ice cream for the longest time, since once he ate too much and got sick, or me and my goat roti

Answer 148

a biological predisposition to rapidly learn a response to a particular class of stimuli

Answer 149

frequent experience with a stimulus before it is paired with an unconditionned stimulus, makes it less likely that conditioned taste aversions will occur after a single episode of illness ex. eat same sandwich everyday and get sick once (we are less likely to avert from sandwich)

Answer 150

type of learning in which behaviour is influenced by consequences associated w behaviourism - A type of learning in which behaviour is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment - involves voluntary actions, unlike classical conditioning, which is automatic (reflex) Change in behaviour created through reward or punishment The organism “gets something” because of its response (food, avoids punishment)

Answer 151

consequence depends on an action ex. getting a good grade is contingent upon studying effectively

Answer 152

process where an event or reward that follows a response increases likelihood of response happening again

Answer 153

rewarded behaviour is likely to recur. Edward Thorndike idea that responses followed by satisfaction (such as studying and achieving a good grade) will occur in same situation, whereas those that are not followed by satisfaction become less likely (sitting next to kat)

Answer 154

stimulus that is contingent upon a response and that increases the probability of that response occuring again ex. food appear after pressing button -> more likely to press that button

Answer 155

process that decreases the future probability of a response ex. timeouts, having parents called when I broke a pencil

Answer 156

strengthening of behaviour after potential reinforcers such as praise, money, or nourishment ex. laughing at profs jokes increases likelihood of them telling jokes

Answer 157

strengthening of behaviour causes it to remove or diminish a stimulus ex. taking an aspirin to remove a headache putting in earlplugs when Mara was being loud to remove the sound Includes avoidance learning and escape learning

Answer 158

specific type of negative reinforcement that removes the possibility that the stimulus will occur ex. leaving early to prevent running into traffic wearing equipment to prevent injury

Answer 159

type of negative reinforcement where response moves a stimulus that is already present (ex. covering ears to escape loud music)

Answer 160

process in which behaviour decreases in frequency cause it was followed by particular, usually unpleasant experience ex. spanking, or squirting a cat positive just means that a stimulus is added

Answer 161

reinforcing successive approximations of a specific operant response - done in step by step process until desired response is learned

Answer 162

linking together 2 or more shaped behaviours in to a more complex action or sequence of actions ex. toilet training or like how they train animals to act in movies

Answer 163

applied behaviour analysis involves using close observation, prompting, and reinforcement to learn behaviours, way of applying operant conditioning

Answer 164

reinforcing stimuli that satisfy an individual's biological needs to survive basic motivational needs ex. food, water, shelter

Answer 165

stimuli that aqcuire their reinforcing effects only after we learn they have value ex. money, "likes" on insta

Answer 166

a cue or event that indicates that a response, if made will be reinforced Like: before we pour a coffee, checking if light is on, or checking parents mood before asking a favour

Answer 167

when an organism learns to respond to one original discriminatory stimulus, but not two (like not a new one that may be similar) ex. pigeon responding to 1000Hz but not 2000Hz

Answer 168

operant response occurs in response to a new stimulus that is similar to other stimulus

Answer 169

rules that determine when reinforcement is available reinforcements may be available at highly predictable times

Answer 170

every response made results in reinforcement ex. putting money in a vending machine - we always get a snack

Answer 171

only a certain number of responses are rewarded, or a certain amount of time must pass before reinforcement is available ex. calling sharon and she only picks up sometimes

Answer 172

1. fixed-ratio schedule 2. variable ratio schedule 3. fixed interval schedule 4. variable interval schedule

Answer 173

reinforces the first response occurring after a set amount of time passes - like studying every time there's a test but not so much in between tests

Answer 174

Type of partial reinforcement schedule number of responses required to receive reinforcements varies according to an average Like playing Tims roll up the rim: 1/6 chance these depend on number of responses

Answer 175

type of partial reinforcement reinforcement is delivered after specific number of responses have been completed ex. press lever 10 times before receiving food (every 10 times)

Answer 176

type of partial reinforcement first response is reinforced after a variable amount of time ex. watching a meteor shower or pop quizzes that arise unexpectedly - gotta constantly be looking or studying outcomes based on how often you study or engage in behaviour

Answer 177

phenomenon in which organisms have been conditionned under partial reinforcement resist extinction longer than those conditionned under continuous reinforcement ex. superstitions and me wearing the same shirt to hockey cause I may score a goal

Answer 178

identifying a stimulus of information when it is presented to you ex. mc test or police line-up

Answer 179

retrieving information when asked but without that information being present during the retrieval process ex. short answer question or describing the criminal's appearance

Answer 180

helped when there are hints = like pictures at the beginning of MCB short answer questions

Answer 181

retrieval is most effective when the conditions at the time of encoding and retrieval are the same (ex. chewing gum when studying and chewing when remembering)

Answer 182

idea that retrieval is more effective when it takes place in the same physical setting as encoding --> as characteristics of environment likely serve as retrieval cues Ex. like me practicing mon discours on the miller small gym stage and yeah

Answer 183

retrieval is more effective when your internal state matches the state you were in during encoding

Answer 184

people remember better if their mood at retrieval matches their mood during encoding

Answer 185

tendency to focus on a weapon at the expense of peripheral information, including the identity of person holding weapon

Answer 186

an extremely vivid and detailed memory about an event and the conditions surrounding how one learned about the event ex. the dislocation or discovering yeah...

Answer 187

shows that most forgetting occurs right away, and the rate of forgetting slows to the point where one eventually doesn't seem to forget at all (i think that's when there's like perioding reflection/recollection in between)

Answer 188

technique intended to improve memory for specific information

Answer 189

mneumonic that connects words to be remembered to locations along a familiar path ex. relating first letter of word to location on path

Answer 190

pronounceable words whose letters represent the initials of important phrase or set of items ex. MADD

Answer 191

GPNDS uses the first letters of a set of items to spell out words that form a sequence

Answer 192

when information is stored in more than one form ex. verbal description and image (leads to deeper processing)

Answer 193

techniques that make studying slower and more effortful, but result in better remembering (and understanding) like going over the MCB processes till remember

Answer 194

taking practice tests can improve exam performance, even without additional studying

Answer 195

use of an action or device to reduce cognitive demands imposed by a given task

Answer 196

organized clusters of memories that constitute a person's knowledge or beliefs about events, objects and ideas like files when we encounter similar events, these schemas become active

Answer 197

process by which we first recall a generalized schema and then add in specific details

Answer 198

you do not have any personal or autobiographical memories from before your 3rd birthday

Answer 199

remembering events that did not occur, or incorrectly recalling details of an event

Answer 200

when information occurring after an event becomes part of the memory for that event

Answer 201

the memory for how or where information was initially acquired ex. remembering when a prof taught a concept or where you heard a fact

Answer 202

increased confidence in a false memory of an event following repeated imagination of the event ex. "Happier" song and ft

Answer 203

techniques used by some clinicians (and some police investigators) to help people recover details of events they are unable to remember

Answer 204

participants study a list of highly related words called semantic associates (means associated by meaning) and then the word most obvious is missing (critical lure) but a large portion remember (intrusion)

Answer 205

the missing word from DRM procedure that a large portion remember

Answer 206

false memory sneaking into real memory (like the critical lure)

Answer 207

memory of a traumatic event that is suddenly recovered after blocking the memory of that event for a long period of time

Answer 208

validity of recovered memories

Answer 209

Behavioral psychology is the study of “external” behavior * Behaviour is objective and observable * Behaviour is the response of an organism to stimuli * Behaviour and learning theorists emphasize experience and learning as the primary forces that shape human behaviour * Behaviour can be controlled by consequences - type of reinforcement following the behaviour * Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning PSYC1000 W25 Dr. G. Pitt 3

Answer 210

cat in a puzzle box - has to pull string to open door to get food (it does this faster and faster) operant conditionint - law of effect

Answer 211

Pioneer in his work with operant conditioning * Was influenced by Thorndike’s Law of Effect With his studies, Skinner designed an operant chamber, or Skinner box. * To help his subjects/animals learn different behaviors, he started with shaping, which gradually guides the animal to the desired behavior Skinner used shaping as a technique to teach rats a complicated task * The rat was rewarded for each response that is closer to the final desired behavior – press lever for food. * Process of reinforcing successive approximations of a specific operant response

Answer 212

Skinner developed two types of reinforcement: 1. Positive Reinforcement: * strengthens a response by presenting a desirable stimuli 2. Negative Reinforcement: * strengthens a response by reducing or removing something undesirable or unpleasant

Answer 213

Nucleus accumbens is active during processing of rewards, both natural and artificial * Dopamine is released during operant conditioning when behavior is rewarded Dopamine-releasing neurons in nucleus accumbens and other areas maintain record of rewarding behaviors

Answer 214

1. Latent learning 2. Observational Learning

Answer 215

on LATENT LEARNING Their research involved three groups of rats run through the maze 10 times. * The first group was rewarded every time they found the route out. * The second group was rewarded only after the 10th time. * The third group was never rewarded Results: * The second group quickly performed as well as the first group after receiving a reward. * The second group was learning but only demonstrated their knowledge when they received reinforcement worthy of quickly running through the maze. * Rats could learn a maze without reinforcement * Rats would not show their learning until they received reinforcement * Rats developed cognitive maps that were only used once there was a reinforcer Tolman & Honzik’s Maze Trials challenged behaviourism * Thinking plays a role in some forms of learning

Answer 216

Bandura Development / behaviour learned through modeling, observation, imitation and self-efficacy in learning as seen in the work of Albert Bandura. * Observational learning and BoBo the Clown - occurs when a child observes another person perform an action and then tries to imitate it. * Bandura proposed the concept of reciprocal determinism of the environment on the child and vice versa

Answer 217

Social theory of learning Children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to act in physically aggressive ways than those who were not exposed to the aggressive model. (Boys averaged 38.2 with 12.7 for girls) * Children are more influenced by same- sex models. * Results showed that boys exhibited more aggression when exposed to aggressive male models than boys exposed to aggressive female models.

Answer 218

- A system that encodes, stores and retrieves information. * Can be defined as ‘the retention of information’ * Not static and can change over time - Memories can be surprisingly good in some cases and surprisingly poor in others (memory paradox)

Answer 219

Synaptic Changes * Neural basis for change in the brain during memory storage is in the synapses. * Memories begin as impulses travelling through the brain circuits, leaving a semi-permanent trace. * The more a memory is utilized, the more potential strength that neuron has, called long-term potentiation.

Answer 220

Hippocampus and Amygdala both in the Midbrain. * Hippocampus helps recall the events themselves * Involved in a process called consolidation. * Information in the working memory is gradually changed over to long term memories. * Memories are also date/time stamped by the hippocampus * Amygdala helps recall emotions associated with events * The amygdala plays a role in strengthening memories that have strong emotional connections. PSYC1000 W 25 Dr. G. Pitt 10

Answer 221

Strong memories fueled by emotion. * Emotional arousal = release epinephrine and norepinephrine * Cortisol = in excess interferes with memory. * Estrogen = improves working memory.

Answer 222

Multistore Model (Atkinson, & Shiffrin, 1968): * The flow of information in thinking * Information flows through three processing units. 1. Sensory store: holds raw sensory information from senses 2. Short-term store (STS): stimuli retained for several seconds 3. Long-term store (LTS): examined information stored for future us

Answer 223

We lose information in STM due to two different processes 1. Decay – fades over time 2. Interference – loss of information due to competition with other information retroactive interference and proactive interference

Answer 224

the frontal cortex.

Answer 225

limited capacity and short duration

Answer 226

long-term memory for events * Children from individualistic cultures tend to recall events from their own perspective and retrieve information related to their personal goals. * Children from collectivist cultures encode, retain, and retrieve more social aspects of events.

Answer 227

- Encoding * Storage * Retrieval

Answer 228

1. Semantic Encoding * encoding of meaning * including meaning of words 2. Acoustic Encoding * encoding of sound * especially sound of words 3. Visual Encoding * encoding of picture images

Answer 229

Used himself as the subject. * He memorized a long list of nonsense syllables which he chose because they had no meaning to him. * He measured his retention of the list of syllables at certain intervals. * Forgetting was most rapid at first - his retention of only 58 percent after 20 minutes and 44 percent after one hour. * Then the rate of forgetting tapered off * 34 percent after one day, 25 percent after six days, and 21 percent after 31 days. * The forgetting curve shows that most forgetting occurs right away, and that the rate of forgetting slows to the point where one does not seem to forget at all.

Answer 230

Encoding Failure * Material not put into LTM. Decay * Unused memories disappear with time. Consolidation Failure * Disruption in consolidation. Interference * Old (proactive) or new (retroactive) information interferes with learning or recall.

Psych Midterm 2!! Flashcards

(257 cards)