Psych/Soc Flashcards

Question

Negative punishment

Answer 1

removes a pleasant factor to discourage a behavior

Answer 2

adds an unpleasant consequence to discourage a behavior

Answer 3

balance and sense of body in the world

Answer 4

occurs when homogenous groups of people have a strong desire for harmony/conformity that they will make irrational decisions!!

Answer 5

investigate a population at a single point in time, looking for predictive relationships among variables.

Answer 6

visual perception

Answer 7

where the two hemispheres are joined

Answer 8

when researchers wish to compare mean values of two unrelated groups

Answer 9

when researchers have respondents provide multiple measurements at different points in time

Answer 10

used to predict scores from independent variables

Answer 11

7-11 years

Answer 12

stresses role of people and interactions in the acquisition of cognitive skills cognition and language develop independently but are both influenced by social interaction: Cognition is the product of socialization, and language arises out of a necessity for social communication.

Answer 13

People have an innate language acquisition capacity

Answer 14

0-1 : Trust vs. mistrust 1-3 : Autonomy vs. shame/doubt 3-6 : Initiative vs. guilt 6-12 : Industry vs. inferiority 12-20 : Identity vs. role confusion 20-40 : Intimacy vs. isolation 40-65 : Generativity vs. stagnation 65+ : Ego integrity vs. despair

Answer 15

stage of moral development characterized by more concern for rewards and punishments than social rules and laws

Answer 16

stage of moral development characterized by concern with morality and the good of society than social rules and laws

Answer 17

Dominated by theta waves. Strange sensations – hypnagonic hallucinations, hearing or seeing things that aren’t there.

Answer 18

deeper stage of sleep. harder to awaken. more theta waves, as well as sleep spindles and K-complexes. Sleep spindles help inhibit certain perceptions so we maintain a tranquil state during sleep K-complexes supress cortical arousal and keep you asleep. Also help sleep-based memory consolidation.

Answer 19

slow wave sleep. Characterized by delta waves. Where walking/talking/bedwetting in sleep happens

Answer 20

muscles paralyzed, dreams occur and memories are consolidated Combination of alpha, beta, and desynchronous waves Sometimes called paradoxical sleep, because brain is active and awake but body prevents it from doing anything.

Answer 21

Happiness Sadness Contempt Surprise Anger Disgust Fear

Answer 22

90 minutes

Answer 23

changes the strength of the relationship between dependent and independent variables

Answer 24

explains the relationship between independent and dependent variables

Answer 25

making a judgment based on emotions that are evoked

Answer 26

the influence of environmental characteristics on a person's perception of a stimulus

Answer 27

emphasizes both thinking and social learning in personality development ex. person sees violence have positive results and becomes prone to violent behaviors

Answer 28

degree to which males and females resemble each other high sexual dimorphism= very different, intense competition for mates

Answer 29

a motive that appears to be unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation a motive that is driven by external stimuli and the interaction with the environment. So like the idea of discovery and curiosity is a stimulus motive because its something intrinsic we have, we want to learn how the world around us works, but at the same time is not necessary for survival

Answer 30

performed obedience experiment where he demonstrated that participants would follow orders of a superior if instructed to go against their conscience

Answer 31

a type of conformity pressure; occurs when an individual conforms behavior to match that of the rest of a group because they believe the group is better informed

Answer 32

type of conformity pressure; individual knows the others are incorrect, but still feels pressure to not dissent

Answer 33

"action before emotion" emotions are the result of autonomic arousal

Answer 34

"two bards with one stone" physiological arousal and subjective experience occur simultaneously

Answer 35

"Sensation (physiological response) and Solve (interpretation of cognition) = emotion Emotions are based on a stimulus which the mind then puts into context; processing context of stimulus creates the emotion similar to the James-Lange theory except for an additional component: cognitive interpretation of physiological response. In other words, anger, fear, and excitement might all produce similar elevations in heart rate, but the experience of each emotion is quite different because emotion is the result of two factors, physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of the situation.

Answer 36

"Lazarus labels first" Labeling recognition then physiological response and emotion

Answer 37

storage and retrieval of memories that pertain to emotion HAT Hippo Hypothalamus Amygdala Thalamus Hippocampus

Answer 38

young children playing independently but in the same proximity and learning from one another

Answer 39

looks at micro level; how human behavior is the most impactful to society people act based on meanings of cultural symbols derived from cultural interactions studies how people interact by using a shared understanding of certain symbols (e.g., a “thumbs up” sign). Cooley/Mead

Answer 40

beliefs/health behaviors that should be understood within the context of culture

Answer 41

when people feel pressured to respond in a way that is socially acceptable within a study

Answer 42

Monkey experiment; showed that infants would cling to cloth mother, even when wire mother was the only food provider showed that contact comfort is crucial monkeys paired with wire mother behaved abnormally; could not be corrected

Answer 43

when society feels fragmented and incohesive

Answer 44

degree to which causal conclusions can be drawn from studies the extent to which you can assume the intervention being studied caused the observed outcome

Answer 45

whether an assessment superficially appears to measure what it is supposed to measure.

Answer 46

how generalizable findings of a study are to the population as a whole

Answer 47

allows researchers to assess the operation of brain regions, as well as their structure Measures blood oxygenation in the brain

Answer 48

prefrontal cortex (nucleus accumbens, amygdala) (also involved in critical thinking) Also, chronic stress has been shown to decrease dendritic branching in areas associated with cognitive flexibility within prefrontal cortex, resulting in REDUCED COPING MECHANISMS. It also increases dendritic branching in areas associated with INCREASED HYPERVIGILANCE.

Answer 49

affects both independent and dependent variable, causing them to be related

Answer 50

old memories inhibit consolidation of retrieving new memories

Answer 51

new memories interfere with old memories

Answer 52

inability to remember previous events

Answer 53

inability to remember new events

Answer 54

stress from too many demands within one role different than role conflict which stems from two separate roles

Answer 55

two roles coming into conflict

Answer 56

reduced acetylcholine

Answer 57

increased dopamine

Answer 58

decreased thiamine (B1)

Answer 59

Introduced general adaptation syndrome to describe responses to long and short term stress reactions: 1. alarm reaction 2. stage of resistance 3. stage of exhaustion an organism's stress response always follows a similar course, regardless of the exact nature of the stressor

Answer 60

has to do with differences in neuronal activity in brainstem during waking/resting sleep

Answer 61

explains mental processes that influence responses to stressors stress as a two step process: 1. production of stressors by environment 2. response of an individual subjected to stressors

Answer 62

people don't think of newly gained money as one's own and will assume more risk with it

Answer 63

if something happens more frequently than normal for a period of time, it will happen less frequently in the future

Answer 64

when individual decision makers act in a way that will cause less optimal outcomes for a group ex. if one person confesses, the other will have better outcome; often neither confess

Answer 65

relays visual info

Answer 66

plays a key role in forming new memories. Convert STM (Short term memory (from the past 20 seconds)) to LTM (long term memory). If destroyed, still have old memories intact, just can’t make new ones (anterograde amnesia).

Answer 67

cognitive skills/judgment/development

Answer 68

spatial sense/navigation

Answer 69

individuals with negative experience may behave in negative ways

Answer 70

behavior influences and is influenced by personal factors and environments

Answer 71

negative: something taken away positive: something given punishment: to stop a behavior reinforcement: to promote a behavior

Answer 72

people learn by watching others

Answer 73

impersonal, written rules, hierarchical

Answer 74

We have 3 major dimensions of personality: extroversion neuroticism (emotional stability) psychoticism (degree to which reality is distorted) not all necessarily have psychoticism.

Answer 75

3 traits of personality: cardinal (most important) central secondary

Answer 76

aldosterone

Answer 77

vasopressin (ADH) for fluid uptake in kidneys oxytocin

Answer 78

epinephrine and norepinephrine

Answer 79

motivation arises from desire to eliminate drives (hunger/reproduction) and depression stems form a reduction in arousal motivation is the result of a disruption in homeostasis, which produces a physiological need (eg, hunger), which leads to a drive (eg, desire to eat). Homeostasis is reestablished once the drive is reduced.

Answer 80

number of cases per year

Answer 81

of people overall

Answer 82

distress: negative neustress: neutral eustress: positive

Answer 83

physiological arousal (how your body reacts to emotions, emotional information or stimuli) expressive displays(how you express your emotions) subjective experiences (how you feel and interpret your emotions, which is extremely personal and subjective). physiological cognitive behavioral

Answer 84

reasoning about a probability based on a prototypical example/stereotype

Answer 85

reasoning based on what most easily comes to mind

Answer 86

studied whether social pressure is likely to make someone conform

Answer 87

age is a way of regulating a generation's behavior Activity Theory - looks at how older generation looks at themselves. Certain activities or jobs lost, those social interactions need to be replaced so elderly can be engaged. Disengagement Theory – older adults and society separate, assumes they become more self-absorbed as they age. But considers elderly people still involved in society as not adjusting well, which is debatable. Continuity Theory - people try to maintain same basic structure throughout their lives. As they age make decisions to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging.

Answer 88

the proportion of unproductive (ie, too old or too young to work) to productive (ie, working-age) members in a society

Answer 89

maintains that population growth is exponential but resource growth is linear. When populations outgrow available resources, preventive checks decrease the birth rate and positive checks increase the death rate; Malthusian catastrophes are large-scale positive checks (war, disease epidemics).

Answer 90

a demographic theory regarding the ideal population size, which is the number of people yielding the highest per capita income given the country's level of wealth, knowledge, and technical resources.

Answer 91

Give sense of depth Retinal disparity (eyes 2.5 inches apart, get slightly different views of objects) Convergence- angular position of eyes as they focus (things far away, eyes relax; things close to us, eyes contract)

Answer 92

depth cues that can be perceived using one eye only and often rely on comparisons between objects Relative size (closer/bigger) interposition (overlap) relative height (things higher perceived to be further away) shading and contour motion parrallax (things farther away move slower) Constancy- our perception doesn't change even if the image cast on the retina is different (size, shape color)

Answer 93

will contract with prolonged higher noise

Answer 94

desensitized to molecules

Answer 95

sense of the position of the body in space

Answer 96

down regulation: light adaptation; when it is bright pupils constrict and become desensitized up regulation: dark regulation; when it is dark pupils dilate and synthesize light sensitive molecules

Answer 97

minimum intensity needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time

Answer 98

Non-adapting: neuron consistency fires at a constant rate Slow adapting: neuron fires at the beginning of a stimulus then calms down Fast adapting: neuron fires as soon as stimulus starts, then stops

Answer 99

located in inner ear the sensory system that contributes to balance and the sense of spatial orientation canal filled with endolymph which detect direction of movement otolithic organs help detect linear acceleration and head positioning contains semicircular canals

Answer 100

looks at how we make decisions under conditions of uncertainty signals have noise distribution (background) and signal distribution peaks - d' is between two peaks hit, miss, false alarm, correct rejection d' = strength C= strategy (might be liberal or conservative) if C=0 it is ideal if C>1 conservative (says no unless positive, will get some misses) if C <1 liberal ( says yes, will get false alarms)

Answer 101

begins with stimulus, which influences what we perceive data driven

Answer 102

uses background knowledge and influences perception theory driven; perception influenced by expectation

Answer 103

explains how we perceive things - similarity: items similar to one another group together by the brain - pragnanz: reality in its simplest form possible - proximity: objects close together are grouped together in our minds - continuity: assume lines follow smoothest path - closure: objects group together seen as whole - symmetry law of common fate: objects functioning/moving in same direction perceived to belong together (flock of birds) law of past experiences: ex. even if you see a new word for the first time, know that Li is two separate letters, not a U

Answer 104

thin layer of cells that lines the inside of your eyelids from the eye

Answer 105

transparent, thick sheet of fibrous tissue; starts to bend light; first part that light hits outermost layer of the front of the eye, in which it directly contacts the back of the eyelids

Answer 106

space filled with aqueous humor that provides pressure to maintain shape of eyeball and allows minerals/nutrients to supply cells of cornea/iris

Answer 107

modulates the amount of light able to enter the eyeball

Answer 108

gives he eye color; constricts/relaxes to change size of pupil

Answer 109

changes shape and uses suspensory ligaments to bend the light so it goes to the back of the eyeball; focuses light on the fovea of the retina

Answer 110

attached to ciliary muscle to form ciliary body which secretes aqueous humor

Answer 111

area behind the iris to the back of the lens; filled with aqueous humor

Answer 112

filled with vitreous humor; provides pressure and gives nutrients to eyeball

Answer 113

inside, back area filled with photoreceptors; where light is converted to neural signals for the brain contains rods and cones

Answer 114

special part of retina rich in cones (also has rods)

Answer 115

part of macula; completely covered in cones (no rods)

Answer 116

detect color and discern detail have fast recovery time * contain photopsin

Answer 117

detect light turn off when light hits it more sensitive than cones have slow recovery time * contain optic discs (large membrane bound structures with proteins that fire action potentials to brain)

Answer 118

part of uvea (vascular layer of eye) pigmented black in humans; a network of blood vessels that help nourish the retina located deep to the sclera

Answer 119

whites of the eyes; thick fibrous tissue; attachment pt for muscles

Answer 120

highest 700 to lowest 400 wavelength ROYGBIV

Answer 121

found in retina; connect with rods and cones and pass electrical impulses to ganglion cells

Answer 122

found in retina; take the electrical impulse from the bipolar cells; impulse travels down their axons and make up optic nerve

Answer 123

formed by axons from ganglion nerve banding together into a strand go through retina and the back of the eye where they connect to retina there is a blind spot network the electrical signal to the brain and converge from each eye at the optic chiasm

Answer 124

red green and blue combine to make all colors

Answer 125

red, green, blue and yellow perceived by cones red/ green and blue/ yellow oppose each other

Answer 126

makes brain recognize there is light entering the eyeball and turns it into a neural impulse by turning off rod

Answer 127

located inside cochlea; transmits auditory info splits cochlea into 2-- the upper and lower membrane At the upper membrane: The hair cells/cilia are called the hair bundle and it ismade of little filaments. Each filament is called a kinocilium. Tip of each kinocilium is connected by a tip link which is attached to gate of K+ channel. When the tip links get pushed back and forth by endolymph movement, they stretch and allows K+ to flow inside the cell from the endolymph (which is K+ rich) When K+ is inside, Ca2+ cells get activated, so Ca2+ flows into the cell and causes an action potential, activates a spiral ganglion cell, then activates the auditory nerve.

Answer 128

Stereopsis is the perception of depth that arises from the integrated information received from both eyes

Answer 129

occurs when the neural response to an unchanging stimulus is dampened and the perception of that stimulus either disappears or is diminished

Answer 130

involves the perceptual discrimination of specific aspects of a given stimulus via feature detectors. Feature detectors are specific neurons that preferentially fire in response to very specific stimuli. look for color, form, motion

Answer 131

in limbic system; regulates Autonomic Nervous System centrally located in the brain and is the command center for the endocrine system, which produces hormones that regulate a number of the body's functions, such as growth, metabolism, blood pressure, core body temperature, appetite, and sleep.

Answer 132

regulates the circadian pacemaker that controls circadian rhythms. When light levels are high, the SCN downregulates melatonin production by the pineal gland. When light levels are low, the SCN upregulates melatonin production by the pineal gland.

Answer 133

motor coordination and motor learning

Answer 134

basal ganglia

Answer 135

states that a depletion of monoamine neurotransmitters (serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine) in the central nervous system causes depression symptoms.

Answer 136

a systematic, quantitative review of multiple studies that have attempted to answer a similar question using comparable methodology and outcome measures. By statistically analyzing the aggregate data, a meta-analysis provides a broader perspective than any single experiment.

Answer 137

reduced ability to percieve pleasure

Answer 138

a structure that is part of the reward pathway in the brain. The reward pathway also includes the ventral tegmental area (which produces dopamine) and portions of the prefrontal cortex.

Answer 139

blocking resorption of serotonin into the presynaptic neuron so it stays in the synaptic cleft for longer

Answer 140

inhibit monoamine oxidase, an enzyme attached to the mitochondria in axon terminals that catalyzes the oxidation (breakdown) of monoamines such as serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine. functions in the presynaptic neuron to recycle monoamines that have been removed from the synaptic cleft. Inhibition of monoamine oxidase therefore increases the concentrations of monoamines in the axon terminal and within the synaptic cleft.

Answer 141

also known as linguistic relativity, posits that language influences our perception and cognition. theory that language shapes cognition. It contends that language development influences cognition but does not entirely determine or control it. (less absolute view than linguistic determinism)

Answer 142

states that language controls perception and cognition the theory that language shapes cognition, states that language completely controls cognition (ie, what/how we think is a product of language) and that without language there is no thought. if language does not differentiate between blue and indigo, a person will not be able to distinguish

Answer 143

states that language is not learned the way other skills/behaviors are learned but is rather an innate process hardwired in the brain. As long as humans are exposed to language during a critical period in early life, language development is biologically predetermined.

Answer 144

States that color information from cones is combined in such a way that we perceive three opposing pairs of colors: black/white, blue/yellow, and red/green. No two members of a pair are seen simultaneously, which is why we do not see colors such as "reddish green" or "bluish yellow."

Answer 145

also known as the trichromatic theory, states that all the colors we see are the result of the combined activity of three types of photoreceptors: Those that respond to short (blue), medium (green), and long (red) wavelengths of light.

Answer 146

A stimulus in the left visual hemifield is processed in the right visual cortex, and a stimulus in the right visual hemifield is processed in the left visual cortex. right and left hemifields overlap at and slightly beyond the central fixation point

Answer 147

good at spatial resolution (boundaries and shape—high levels of details), and color. But poor temporal (can’t detect motion—only stationary.) - Cones responsible § Acronym: Pink Pyramid (a type of “form”/”shape”) travels from the retina to the ventral (lower) layers of the LGN, then to the V1, and eventually to the ventral brain regions. This pathway, known as the "what" pathway, is responsible for the perception of finer detail, such as form and color.

Answer 148

has high temporal resolution (think time, motion) resolution [encodes motion]. But has poor spatial resolution; no color). Rods responsible. Acronym: Motion = Magnocellular pathway travels from the retina to the dorsal (upper) layers of the LGN, then to the V1, and eventually to the dorsal brain regions. This pathway, known as the "where" pathway, is responsible for the perception of coarser detail, such as depth and motion.

Answer 149

used to study one or a few individuals who possess a trait or condition of interest, such as a genetic mutation causing four distinct cone types.

Answer 150

an experimental study in which participants are randomly allocated to two or more experimental groups that receive different treatments or exposures.

Answer 151

memory stored without effort or awareness. The main type of implicit memory is procedural memory, or memory of how to do things (eg, ride a bicycle, tie a shoe)

Answer 152

is the sensory information you actually process. Consists of what you are thinking about at the moment. Capacity is Magic number 7 (working memory can hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of info at a time-- phone #s 7 digits long). Does vary based on how complicated the stimuli are, how old you are. Different components to process input. Working memory is memory that is stored while it is held in attention.

Answer 153

Connector for info to be held in long term memory responsible for temporal processing (understanding the timeline of events) and integrating information from long-term memory into working memory (eg, remembering how to multiply when figuring out a tip at a restaurant).

Answer 154

gives us the ability to temporarily hold spoken or written information in our memory through repetition

Answer 155

(also known as the motion picture effect) is an optical illusion in which a series of still photographs presented in rapid succession appear to be moving.

Answer 156

impacted by task similarity, difficulty, and practice.

Answer 157

describes how one's self-concept (ideas and beliefs about the self) is shaped by group membership. The major social identities are sex/gender, sexuality, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, age, family status (eg, married, parent), and occupation. Social identities define individuals in relation to others and allow for social groupings.

Answer 158

characterize the interaction between the two people

Answer 159

the intended consequences of a social structure. For example, the media (a social structure) is meant to disseminate information.

Answer 160

refers to the extent to which an individual perceives himself or herself as a member of a larger collective.

Answer 161

individual behaviors and interactions attempt to increase personal gain and decrease personal loss

Answer 162

comparable

Answer 163

uses x-rays to create cross-sectional images of the brain and is most useful for providing images of detailed structures.

Answer 164

measures electrical brain activity through the use of electrodes attached to the scalp. An EEG can provide some information about brain activity, but it cannot localize activity to a specific brain area

Answer 165

a functional neuroimaging technique that measures physiological activity in the brain. It uses a radioactive tracer attached to a glucose analog to measure which areas of the brain are metabolically active (using glucose more rapidly) during specific tasks.

Answer 166

refers to ideas, attitudes, and behaviors that are widespread in society. Popular culture reflects the beliefs and behaviors of the masses, whereas high culture is relevant to only a small fraction (eg, those who are wealthy and/or educated).

Answer 167

occurs when success is credited to internal factors but failure is blamed on external factors. For example, a good grade is attributed to being smart (internal), whereas a bad grade is attributed to the questions being unfair (external).

Answer 168

occurs when an individual is more likely to blame his or her own bad behavior on external circumstances. For example, an individual may cut someone off in traffic, but would excuse their behavior due to running late. blame our own actions on external situations but the actions of others on personality

Answer 169

transforming unacceptable thoughts/behaviors to acceptable thoughts behaviors (taking up boxing to vent anger)

Answer 170

extreme concern regarding one or more physical symptoms

Answer 171

"neurological symptoms" that cannot be explained by a medical condition

Answer 172

faking illness for external gain like disability benefits

Answer 173

Expectancy is the belief that one will be able to achieve the desired outcome. Instrumentality is the belief that one has control over the desired outcome. Valence involves the value placed on the desired outcome.

Answer 174

Basic needs include physiological needs and safety needs. Physiological needs are the basic elements necessary for survival, such as sleep, water, food, and air. Safety needs involve protection from danger, a sense of security, law and order, and freedom from fear. Love; belonging and acceptance from social groups Esteem needs involve the desire to feel accomplished and productive within a society. These involve the need for feelings of achievement, independence, and respect. Self-actualization needs involve a desire to seek personal experiences that allow one to reach full potential. Maslow believed everyone could attain self actualization, but progress would be thwarted by failure to attain lower needs. "Please Stop Liking Stupid (Esteem) Shit"

Answer 175

acting in a manner opposite to how you truly feel

Answer 176

Taking out unacceptable thoughts/feelings on a safe target (punching a pillow)

Answer 177

Helmet-like device placed over the head Magnetic fields produced by electrical brain activity

Answer 178

Electrodes placed on the scalp & connected to an amplifier Electrical signals of the cortex below the skull

Answer 179

predicts that an individual's response or reaction to a situation is the result of her interpretation of the situation. In other words, our actions are based on our perception of reality.

Answer 180

suggests that there is an optimal level of physiological or mental arousal at which performance is maximized; performance will decline with too little or too much arousal.

Answer 181

describes experimental subjects modifying their behavior or responses because they know they are being observed.

Answer 182

change negative thoughts and maladaptive behaviors by reframing how one thinks

Answer 183

move towards self actualization through unconditional positive regard and empathy The focus of humanistic psychology is on the healthy development of personality; this framework ascribes free will to people rather than focusing on the constraints of early relationships like Freud. by Carl Rodgers

Answer 184

suggests that personality is the result of a combination of traits that are relatively stable over time. Trait theory does not account for external influences on personality or for the reasons underlying personality traits.

Answer 185

Specific knowledge/concepts

Answer 186

maintains the convex shape of the cornea

Answer 187

supports the lens and maintains the shape of the entire eye

Answer 188

nearsightedness occurs when an eyeball is elongated; images in the distance appear blurry

Answer 189

occurs because the image focuses behind the retina due to loss of elasticity in the lens; similar to hyperopia (farsightedness)

Answer 190

MEMORY! sensory relay station, everything you hear/taste/etc. Senses come through your nerves and end up in thalamus, which directs them to appropriate areas in cortex, and other areas of the brain. Emotions contingent on senses. Smell is only one that bypasses the thalamus – goes to areas closer to amygdala.

Answer 191

Can be split up by hemispheres positive emotions evoke activity on left side negative emotions evoke activity on right side

Answer 192

(utricle and saccule) help to detect linear acceleration and head positioning CaCO3 crystals attached to hair cells in viscous gel, they move with head movement due to gravity can contribute to dizziness and vertigo

Answer 193

Fluid inside inner ear's labyrinth; convey sound, position, and balance to CNS we get dizzy after spinning because endolymph doesn't stop spinning when we do

Answer 194

occurs whenever energy is transformed from one form to another ex. light energy transformed to electrical energy by rods/cones

Answer 195

Light comes in, goes through pupil, and hits rod. Normally rod is turned on, but when light hits turns off. When rod is off, it turns on a bipolar cell, which turns on a retinal ganglion cell, which goes into the optic nerve and enters the brain.

Answer 196

When dark, ROD turned on, ON CENTER bipolar cells inactive, OFF CENTER bipolar cells active. * When OFF CENTER bipolar cells turned on, this activates OFF CENTER retinal ganglion cell, which sends signal to optic nerve to brain.

Answer 197

When light hits ROD, turned off ON CENTER bipolar cells active, OFF CENTER bipolar cells inactive. * When ON CENTER bipolar cells turned on, this activates ON CENTER retinal ganglion cell, which sends signal to optic nerve to brain.

Answer 198

* Photopic vision occurs at levels of high light levels. * Mesopic vision occurs at dawn or dusk and involves both rods and cones. * Scotopic vision occurs at levels of very low light.

Answer 199

more rods than cones rods more sensitive cones in fovea rods have slow recovery; cones have fast

Answer 200

pressurized sound wave (stimuli) hair cell (receptor, located in cochlea)

Answer 201

1. pinna (outer part of ear) 2. the auditory canal (external auditory meatus) 3. tympanic membrane (eardrum) when pressurized wave hits eardrum, vibrates back and forth, these three bones (called ossicles) vibrate in this order: - malleus (hammer) - incus (anvil) - stapes (stirrup) 4. stapes is attached to oval window (elliptical window); vibrates back and forth 5. as oval window vibrates, pushes fluid in/around cochlea (round structure lined with hair cells) 6. at tip of cochlea, fluid will go back to the round window (circular window) and get pushed out 7. will not go back go oval window because there is a membrane-- the organ of Corti (has basilar membrane/tectorial membrane) 9. hair cells move back and forth in cochlea; electrical impulse transported by auditory nerve to the brain process of fluid going around the cochlea occurs until the energy of the sound wave dissipates

Answer 202

from pinna to tympanic membrane

Answer 203

three ossicles (from malleus to stapes)

Answer 204

cochlea and semicircular canals

Answer 205

personality is composed of the id (pleasure principle) the ego (reality principle) the superego (morality/perfection principle). The rational ego functions to mediate between external reality and the unconscious self, negotiating the desires of the primitive, impulsive id and the moralistic superego. the ego mediates between the id (base desires) and the superego (moral impulses).

Answer 206

reflects whether an assessment comprehensively measures the construct it is supposed to measure.

Answer 207

the process of developing (anticipating failure) behavioral reactions and explanations that minimize personal responsibility for the failure.

Answer 208

Mead proposed two versions of the self: the “me” and the “I.” The “me” is the attitudes, roles, meanings, pressures, and values of society and others around the individual that are organized into one’s social self through role-taking. The “I” is the part of the self that can be identified with desires, freedom, and creativity. Essentially, the “me” is the social self and the “I” is one’s response to the “me.” Through socialization, individuals learn to look at the world through others’ perspectives.

Answer 209

controls unconscious physiological responses, which precede emotional response under the James-Lange theory.

Answer 210

pertains only to auditory info

Answer 211

when patients have an inflated sense of their own importance and a deep craving for admiration. The inflated sense of importance implies that patients have a disconnect with reality. Narcissistic personality disorder deals with who patients think they already are their self-concept.

Answer 212

patients may exhibit deliberate sadism

Answer 213

prescriptive refers to what an individual believes should occur descriptive refers to what one perceives as actually occurring.

Answer 214

Inductive reasoning extrapolates from individual observations to general principles deductive reasoning is the opposite.

Answer 215

the inappropriate transferring of feelings about one relationship to another. The classic example is a patient transferring childhood feelings about a parent onto their therapist.

Answer 216

Core countries are those well-developed, wealthy nations that control many resources, have powerful militaries, and have strong state institutions. Semi-periphery countries share characteristics of core and periphery countries. Periphery countries are dependent on core countries for capital and lack a strong centralized government.

Answer 217

a phenomenon in which information that is presented first has a disproportionate influence on your perception of a person recency effect= more recent/easier to remember

Answer 218

beliefs about which attributes are most important in making judgments about people.

Answer 219

occurs when we make decisions based on what we consider to be the prototypical example of a category.

Answer 220

photographic memory

Answer 221

the tendency that people have to perform simple tasks better or more efficiently when in the presence of other people this relates to Yerkes Dodson law Social inhibition occurs when the presence of an audience hinders performance

Answer 222

occurs when all participants are exposed to every condition in a study.

Answer 223

stable, lifelong relationsihps

Answer 224

an individual’s representation of himself that is based on how others view that individual.

Answer 225

first response is physiological and caused by stimulation of sympathetic nervous system (which releases epinephrine and norepinephrine) second response is cognitive and initiates when the hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) which stimulates pituitary gland to produce adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) which stimulates the release of cortisol from adrenal glands

Answer 226

helps body maintain continuous supply of blood sugar needed to sustain stress response by up-regulating gluconeogenesis and mobilizing free fatty acids and amino acids to be metabolized -- when more glucose is available, brain can function during times of stress too much cortisol release can impact white blood cells and make immune system weak

Answer 227

focuses on subjective elements of an experience by trying to understand individuals’ perceptions, perspectives, and understanding of a particular situation or event. Often, this is done by way of collecting narratives from multiple subjects regarding the same situation or experience, in order to make generalizations about the research topic.

Answer 228

draw inferences from a sample regarding the effects of an independent variable on a population; however, the independent variable is not specifically manipulated by the researcher, and is instead often pre-existing within the sample of interest. Common examples of observational studies include case-control, cross-sectional, longitudinal, cohort and ecological studies.

Answer 229

Gender schema - what makes someone categorized into a male or female Gender script - what is expected of that person once they are gendered Gender role - acceptable normative behaviors for a gender

Answer 230

Self-schemata refers to an individual’s understanding of their present self. Self-esteem is an overarching evaluation of one’s self-worth and self-efficacy is a self-assessment centered on an individual’s ability to perform a specific task or set of tasks.

Answer 231

only have two categories.

Answer 232

can be ranked to allow for comparisons. For example, if you were asked about the highest level of education achieved, you could respond with high school degree, college degree, medical degree, etc.

Answer 233

have an infinite number of categories. If the question was something like “how many full-time jobs have you had?” or “how many hours do you work each week?”, there would be more than two categories for responses, and employment status would be a continuous variable.

Answer 234

a neuropsychiatric syndrome characterized by abnormal movements, behaviors, and withdrawal

Answer 235

a lack of interest in goal-directed behavior.

Answer 236

the inability to speak

Answer 237

an illness marked by an ongoing pattern of varying moods, self-image, and behavior.

Answer 238

a class of mental health conditions that describes all types of depression and bipolar disorders.

Answer 239

classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus and the subsequent unconditioned response to it are used to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus, which causes a conditioned response. The best-known example is Pavlov’s experiment on dogs.

Answer 240

uses reinforcement to encourage a behavior and punishment to discourage it

Answer 241

A fixed-ratio schedule is when the behavior is reinforced after a specific number of responses. For example, a rat gets a treat every third push of a lever. Variable-ratio schedules occur when behavior is reinforced after an average, but unpredictable, number of responses. For example, a rat treat dispenser could be set to dispense a treat after an average of 1 out of every 10 presses, but the exact number of presses between rewards will vary Fixed-interval schedules occur when behavior is reinforced after a specific amount of time has passed. An example would be semi-monthly paydays. Variable-interval schedules occur when behavior is reinforced after an average, but unpredictable, amount of time has passed.

Answer 242

defined as one reward per response.

Answer 243

an experimental technique used to investigate the ability to attend to and learn information in the presence of distractions. In a shadowing task you are wearing headphones and they have two different sounds in each. Left ear hear one thing, right ear another thing. Told to repeat everything said in one ear and ignore the other. Focus on one ear and ignore the other (selective attention).

Answer 244

an intense feeling of discomfort that comes about when you act in a way that is different from what you believe.

Answer 245

Bobo the doll experiment pertaining to social cognitive learning; kids see adults beating up doll, some mimic behavior, others don't Attention, Memory, Imitation, Motivation. he believed all the previous theories are correct to an extent and that we learn both from doing and from observing. That's not to say that if we see something that we will learn it, but instead that we learn what we want to learn

Answer 246

Stanford prison experiment-- Purpose: how conformity/obedience can result in acts different from usual (on their own) or even contrary to how they think they would act. The answer is complicated (not only bad people do bad things). In certain situations can make otherwise ordinary people behave in strange ways. Goal: How social norms/conventions can influence behaviors of participants playing the roles of prisoners/guards.

Answer 247

can change the way the results are interpreted

Answer 248

closely related to the dramaturgical approach, is the process by which individuals attempt to influence the perceptions of observers by controlling what information they present to others during social interactions.

Answer 249

Concepts of front stage self, back stage self, impression management, and communication are all relevant to the dramaturgical approach to social interactions. Dramaturgy uses the metaphor of theater to understand social interactions. When interacting, people are assumed to act in accordance with the expectations of their audience. Studied by Goffman

Answer 250

a theory that describes the ways in which persuasive information may be processed. Under the central route, persuasion will likely result from a person's careful consideration of the merits of persuasive information. Under the peripheral route, persuasion results from a person's association with positive or negative cues, such as the attractiveness of the message source and its related presentation.

Answer 251

Mores and taboos are unwritten rules in a society about what is considered right and wrong about important issues (e.g. the incest taboo). Mores and taboos are very similar concepts, though taboos can be considered more stringent societal norms.

Answer 252

knowledge structures that determine one's expectations in different contexts, including social interactions

Answer 253

cognitive rules of thumb that offer shortcuts to reasoning and problem solving.

Answer 254

the integration of sensory information

Answer 255

Characterized by interest in the topic, processing of info, and lasting knowledge (part of elaboration likelihood model)

Answer 256

Characterized by low interest, focus on superficial aspects, and temporarily impacts listener (part of elaboration likelihood model)

Answer 257

states that the interaction between a person’s behaviours, personal factors (motivation/cognition), and environment are all determined by one another

Answer 258

refers to the tendency to experience a stable perception even as the sensory input itself is changing

Answer 259

focuses on how an individual might learn behaviors, that are considered as deviant in larger society, from their close social environment.

Answer 260

specifically focuses on how deviant behaviors in the past have long-term stigmatizing impacts on individuals.

Answer 261

a cognitive bias that limits a person to use an object only in the way it is traditionally used

Answer 262

Continuous reinforcement refers to reinforcing every response emitted by an individual. Continuous reinforcement is associated with a fast rate of acquisition, but quicker extinction. Partial reinforcement occurs when only some of the responses emitted by an individual are reinforced. Partial reinforcement, on the other hand, is associated with slower acquisition and slower extinction.

Answer 263

the system of memory which preserves information in its original sensory form, typically only for a fraction of a second.

Answer 264

the interference of innate, species-specific behaviors with continued performance of a learned response.

Answer 265

the central route utilizes informational content and the quality of arguments to persuade peripheral route persuasion uses the message characteristics not central to the information and arguments presented, such as emotional appeals

Answer 266

occur if the research design provides cues to the participants regarding the study hypothesis and causes them to respond in a specific manner.

Answer 267

refers to the stage in a study where the researcher describes the social dynamics related to a concept.

Answer 268

refers to how an abstract concept as a variable is observed through different measurements.

Answer 269

a sick person has the right to be excused from normal responsibilities and to be held blameless for the illness. A sick person has the obligation to attempt to get well as soon as possible, and to seek and comply with the advice of medical professionals.

Answer 270

characterized by instability in mood, sense of self, and relationships. Symptoms may include extreme mood reactivity, fear of abandonment, impulsive or reckless behavior (eg, drug use, unsafe sex), and suicidal or self-harming behavior.

Answer 271

characterized by mania: An elevated or irritable mood, feelings of grandiosity, reduced need for sleep, flight of ideas (rapid thoughts), and risky behaviors. Most people also experience depressive episodes: Feelings of sadness/hopelessness, lack of interest in activities, sleep disturbances, and thoughts of death or suicide.

Answer 272

discusses how chronically ill individuals make sense of and manage their illness in daily life and what effect illness has on their sense of self-identity. Chronically ill individuals employ strategies that involve illness work (eg, taking medications), everyday work (eg, maintaining a household), and biographical work (eg, explaining the illness to others) to cope with and make sense of their illness.

Answer 273

the process by which one group designates another group with a racial identity, often based on shared group qualities like physical attributes or behaviors (eg, religious practices). The designating group has more social power (dominant group) and exerts social control over the designated group, which has less social power (subordinate group).

Answer 274

passing of cultural information (eg, behaviors, beliefs, objects) from one generation to the next

Answer 275

Class consciousness is the recognition of class structure and identification with one's own social status. False consciousness refers to individuals from lower classes adopting misleading messages from the upper class.

Answer 276

A renewed response to a previously habituated stimulus (eg, after taking off the sweater & then putting it back on, it feels scratchy again)

Answer 277

involves the transfer of information into long-term memory. Information that is attended to and processed more deeply tends to be remembered better.

Answer 278

the linking of two events or stimuli. For example, in operant conditioning, a behavior is associated with a consequence (ie, reinforcement or punishment).

Answer 279

describes a message's persuasiveness based on how deeply or superficially it is processed and the characteristics of the audience (eg, motivation).

Answer 280

cognition controls language

Answer 281

cognition influences language

Answer 282

located in the frontal lobe, is responsible primarily for speech production, including the motor control of the mouth that is necessary for fluent language production.

Answer 283

the brain region responsible for language comprehension (understanding both written and auditory language input)

Answer 284

predicts that individuals experience tension (strain) when there is a disconnect between goals and the available means for achieving those goals. For example, a parent who is unable to feed her child (goal) because there is not enough food (lack of means) experiences strain.

Answer 285

when a problem solver gets stuck on a method that worked in the past but is not right for the current problem.

Answer 286

prevents a problem solver from conceiving different uses or functions for an object. Using the edge of a coin to tighten a screw is an example of overcoming functional fixedness to solve a problem.

Answer 287

the discontent people experience when they believe they are entitled to something yet are being deprived of it.

Answer 288

help explain human migration patterns. Push factors (eg, unemployment, war) describe why people move away from their native country, and pull factors (eg, education, opportunities for girls) describe why people move to a new country.

Answer 289

An individual's inclusive fitness is the sum of its direct fitness (own reproduction) and indirect fitness (cooperative behavior that aids kin).

Answer 290

mathematically evaluates the relative success of particular strategies (behavioral phenotypes) over time.

Answer 291

refer to memory errors (usually errors of commission), in which some information introduced and encoded after the target information is retrieved along with some portions of the target information. In such cases, the subject usually has trouble identifying which retrieved information had been originally encoded and which information was introduced subsequently, a situation known as source confusion.

Answer 292

the retrieval advantage of verbal items that are imageable. These items are encoded with both a verbal code and a visual code, so they are easier to remember

Answer 293

the benefit of matching the conditions when info is encoded into memory and the conditions when trying to retrieve the info

Answer 294

when the representation of a concept is activated in memory, the activation spreads to concepts that are semantically or associatively related to it relates storage of memory to activation of a series of nodes ; when a node in the semantic network is activated (eg, viewing a picture of a toy fire engine), nodes directly connected to that node (eg, firefighter, alarm) are activated as well

Answer 295

refers to a subject's ability to retrieve the details of the situation extant when memory items were encoded. More specifically, when some additional information is introduced after the original encoding, this post-event information can be mistakenly included in recall of the original event, leading to a misinformation effect.

Answer 296

behaviorist

Answer 297

Positive punishment refers to the decrease in the frequency of a response resulting from the introduction of an aversive stimulus following that response example: a woman who has bad panic attacks stops attending meetings + panic attacks (bad stimulus) - meetings

Answer 298

deep in the brainstem; concerned with functions involving arousal, particularly the sleep-wake cycle, and attention.

Answer 299

require the binding of a molecule to the ion channel, causing it to open. This is observed during olfaction and gustation

Answer 300

Sound wave-induced vibration of hair cells generates tension within the cell membrane that directly activate ion channels responsible for auditory signaling. This type of ion channel is a mechanically-gated channel, such that upon its activation, it generates a depolarizing current within the cell.

Answer 301

habituation and dishabituation; The study involves reduced responding to a repeating stimulus, which is best described as habituation. The researcher then changes the stimulus, which will likely lead to dishabituation.

Answer 302

increased sympathetic arousal

Answer 303

refers to the perpetuation of inequality through social institutions.

Answer 304

due to group polarization, they will all become even more strongly risk averse (attitude becoming more extreme)

Answer 305

STM capacity lies between 5 and 9 items. George Miller (1956) named this idea the "Magical Number 7 + 2".

Answer 306

states that the initial registration of the information is briefly processed in a form of sensory memory, which is extremely brief in duration.

Answer 307

larger groups are generally considered more stable but less intimate, whereas smaller groups are usually considered less stable but more intimate. Dyads, two-person groups, are unstable because either party can break the single social tie. The triad, three person groups, is considered relatively more stable because of the additional social tie.

Answer 308

Defined by systematic observation of a complete social environment

Answer 309

Escape learning = learning how to terminate an ongoing unpleasant stimulus (eg, a dog jumps over a partition to flee from or stop a continuous electric shock). Escape learning becomes avoidance learning when preventing coming into contact with an unpleasant stimulus (eg, a dog jumps over a partition to avoid the electric shock before it occurs).

Answer 310

he selective recall of items presented at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a series or list. The position in which items are presented influences which items are most easily remembered.

Answer 311

Primary reinforcers are naturally rewarding (eg, food), whereas secondary reinforcers are conditioned to be desirable

Answer 312

uses tokens (eg, gold stars) as secondary reinforcers to encourage certain desired behaviors. Tokens can be exchanged for something the individual wants

Answer 313

a type of nonassociative learning that occurs when repeated exposure to a stimulus results in a decreased response.

Answer 314

Normative social influence takes place when people attempt to fit in informational social influence occurs when people assume others have more information and know what to do

Answer 315

describes the degree to which a measure is consistent (eg, a similar score for a person who takes the same assessment twice). Reliability also describes the extent to which an experiment is replicable or reproducible (ie, repeating the experiment produces similar results).

Answer 316

refers to the social problems created by the time delay between rapid changes in material culture (technology, fashion) and slower changes in nonmaterial culture (ideas, beliefs, laws). For example, the Internet has evolved faster than have the laws needed to protect the safety of minors while online.

Answer 317

analytical- involves completing academic problems and problem solving tasks creative- dealing with novel problems and situations interpersonal- understanding and interacting with other people emotional- ability to perceive, assess, manage emotions of oneself/others/groups

Answer 318

positive affirmations/ any reward will reaffirm a behavior. any punishment will decrease a behavior

Answer 319

consanguineal (genetically related individuals), affinal (individuals related through marriage), and fictive, which describes individuals related through something other than genetics or marriage.

Answer 320

the uneven distribution of wealth and resources across a geographic area. Some of the best examples of spatial inequality are low-income subsidized housing projects.

Answer 321

an attributional bias that occurs when one believes that the world is fair and good things happen to people who are hard-working and good and that bad things happen to people who are bad or lazy.

Answer 322

During N3 (stage 3; slow wave) sleep

Answer 323

Alpha waves

Answer 324

used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety (calm them down) Depress your CNS. Anesthesia or anticonvulsant (drugs that reduce seizures)

Answer 325

the most commonly prescribed suppressant. Subscribed for same things as barbiturates - sleep aids (to treat insomnia) or anti-anxiety or seizures (anticonvulsant)

Answer 326

ventral tegmental area (VTA), in the midbrain

Answer 327

nucleus accumbens, amygdala and hippocampus are part of the mesolimbic pathway.

Answer 328

as dopamine goes up, serotonin goes down

Answer 329

end up switching between tasks when trying to do them simultaneously

Answer 330

Exogenous /External Cues: Don’t have to tell ourselves to look for them in order for them to capture our attention Ex. Bright colors, loud noises, “pop-out effect”) Endogenous Cues / Internal Cues - Require internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it Cocktail party effect – ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd. Or when someone calls your name (endogenous cue: meaning of name draws attention)

Answer 331

we aren’t aware of things not in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field. “miss something right in front of you”

Answer 332

addresses changes in the birth rate and the death rate that are associated with economic development (specifically, related to industrialization). The typical pattern begins with a drop in the death rate, leading to population growth, followed by a drop in the birth rate, leading to population stabilization.

Psych/Soc Flashcards

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