Psych Soc Flashcards
(266 cards)
1
Q
Social Loafing
A
- tendency that people have to put in less effort in a group setting
- especially true when group is evaluated on a whole
2
Q
“foot-in-the-door technique” of persuasion
A
- involves getting a person to agree to a small request, followed by makeing a much larget request
- Ex: asking customer to purchase small item in store, followed by making a much larger request to buy something else
3
Q
Heuristics
A
- refers to mental shortcuts or simplified iterations of principles that can help us make decisions, but can also lead to poor judgement
4
Q
If Weber’s law states that a subject detects a noticable difference when shifting from 5kg to 8kg mass, how many kg must be added to a 15kg mass to replicate effect?
A
A) initial ratio = [5:8]
B) new ratio = [15:24] – ∴ a 9 kg mass must be added to a 15 kg mass to notice the same difference
5
Q
The House Money Effect
A
- after a prior gain, people become more open to assuming risk when the new money is not treated as one’s own
6
Q
Harry Harlow Experiment (Rhesus Monkeys)
A
- experiment examined parent/child attachment, social isolation, and dependency in rhesus monkeys
- Attachment:
• Results:
– infant monkeys preferred spending time clinging to cloth mother vs. wire mother (even when wire mother was only one to provide food, still visited cloth mom just to eat)
– wire vs. cloth paired monkeys consumed and grew in similar amounts, but wire monkeys sought less soothing from their moms
– monkeys paired w/wire mom displayed abnormal behavior—»behavior could not be corrected by pairing them w/cloth mom after development of abnormal behavior
• Conclusion: contact comfort was crucial to psychological devleopment and health of infants
7
Q
Weber’s Law
A
- states that the just-noticeable difference for a stimulus is proportional to the magnitde of the stimulus, and this proportion is constant over most of the range of possible stimuli
8
Q
Prejudice
A
- a preconcieved notion about a person, group, or thing
- specifically target people (unlike stereotypes), groups, etc
- EX: if i see someone wearing red and form a negative opinion about that person
9
Q
Relative Deprevation Theory
A
- posits that individuals who perceive themselves as having less resources than others will often act in ways to obtain these resources
- individuals lash out against others due to perceived deprivation of resources that they believe they are entitled to (i.e. minority groups w/discrimination)
10
Q
Accommodation
A
- Term for how we adjust our schemas to incorporate new experiences to remeber
- Acronym: accommodation has cc” for change or create”
11
Q
Compliance
A
- Compliance: when an individual changes his or her behavior in response to a direct request (usually a person or group that doesn’t actually have authority to enforce that change)
12
Q
Wernicke’s Aphasia
A
- Damage to Wernike;’s area—»causes the loss of speech comprehension
- patients can speak, but words are non-sensical—»problem with creating meaningful, intelligible speech
13
Q
Expert Power
A
- refers to the power conferred by the socially symbolic status of being a credentialed expert in the field with specialized knowledge
- group believes the person has a special knowledge or skill, and is trustworthy—»appeal to high-knowledge/high-motivation people
14
Q
Classical Conditioning
A
- Unconditioned stimulus (US) and the subsequent uconditioned response (UR) to it are used to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus
- Ex: Pavlov’s dog’s expt.
- US: meat
- UR: salvation at sight of meat
- neutral stimulus: bell rung before meat
- CR: salvation upon bell ring
15
Q
Place Theory
A
posits that one can hear different pitches b/c different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlea’s basilar membrane
16
Q
Symbolic Interactionism
A
- focuses on symbolic meaning that people develop and rely upon in the process of social interactions
- Ex: smoking—»symbolic interactionism of smoking is point of contention; some social circles see smoking as trendy while others see it as symbol of poor self-regard and ignorance
- EX: The symbolic meaning of marijuana usage, developed through social interactions, explains why individuals become sustained marijuana users.
17
Q
Cognitive Biases
A
- ways in which our perceptions and judgements systematically differ from reality
- thought to be unavoidable freatures of our cognitive system, and may even be adaptive in some cases
18
Q
Fundamental Attributional Theory
A
is when an individual interprets another’s actions incorrectly by overemphasizing internal characteristics instead of external events
19
Q
attrition bias
A
occurs when participants drop out of a long-term experiement or study
20
Q
Coercive Power
A
- power exerted through the threat of force/punishment—»most direct form of power
- effective form of power for all types of individuals regardless of knowledge/motivation
21
Q
Internal Validity
A
- the degree to which causal conclusions can be drawn from a study (can include accounting for confounding variables)
22
Q
Freud’s Id, Ego, & Superego in terms of consciousness
A
23
Q
Would an external locus of control mentality have a positive or negative effect on self-efficacy?
A
- it would have a negative efect—»it might increase an individual’s self-esteem, but not their self-efficacy
24
Q
Discrimination
A
- a change in behavior (i.e. speaking/questions asked) based on race and gender
- EX: profesors speaking w/minority females are more likely to use shorter sentances w/more instructions, and asked questions that assumed a lack of skill
25
urbanization
patterned movement from rural areas to cities
EX: ppl in rural areas dont have enough resources to support the growing population, so ppl move to city
26
Group Polarization
1. tendency that groups have to make decisions that are notably more extreme than the intial individual opinions of members
27
What are some characteristics of societies w/high levels of Anomie?
1. rapid changes in society
2. low levels of income
3. high heterogeneity
28
Meritocracy
a system under which individuals are rewarded on the basis of individual skill, talent, or achievement
-EX: testing system that reqards students for sucess on the test
29
Deindividuation
1. describes how ppl lose sense of self-awareness in large group settings
2. provides high degree of arousal and low sense of responsibiltiy
3. main contributing factors: anonymity, diffused responsibilty, and group size
30
what is stranger anxiety? At what age is this displayed?
**Stranger Anxiety**: the fear of strangers (or other-race faces, etc.) that **infants** commonly express around **8 months of age**
31
variable interval schedule
1. occurs when behavior is reinforced after an average, but unpredictable, amount of time has passed
2. Ex: pigeon recieves food pellet for pressing button, and another pellet is administered on average every 30s (i.e. could be 10s, 40s, etc.)
32
why do affluent countries typically have a higher mortality rate despite being higher than poor countries in all other measures of quality of life?
1. affluent countries often have higher median ages—»leads to higher mortality rate due to more age-related deaths
33
Face Validity
1. refers to whether a study comprehensively accounts for all the relevant facets of the phenomenon it is intended to investigate
34
Reconstructive Bias
type of bias related to memory—»our memories of the past are not as accurate as we think, especially memory during high stress periods
35
Moderating Variable
1. one that influences the strength of a relationship between two other variables
2. Ex: relation between class size and test performance
- Class time spent learning = **mediator variable**
- SES of parents = **moderating variable**
- private vs. public school = **confounding variable**
36
Gambler's Fallacy
1. mistaken belief that, if something happens more frequently than normal during some period, it will happen less frequently in the future or vice versa
2. Ex: someone who bets on red b/c last 5 spins all landed on black
37
self-serving bias
1. a person interprets things in a way to bolster self-esteem, including how they carry out attribution
2. cognitive bias
38
Gestalt's Principles of Perception
1. **Law of Proximity:** asserts that we tend to perceive objects close to each other, rather than as a large collection of individual pieces
2. **Law of Similarity**: states that objects that are similar to each other in terms of color or other properties will be grouped together
3. **Law of Closure**: states that people tend to infer complete shapes even if a shape is incompletely sketched out or blocked by another object -prinicple of good continuation states that we perceive intersecting objects as forming coherent wholes
39
Reliability Vs. Validity
**Reliability**: refers to how consistent and repeatable an experiment is
**Validity**: a measure of how well a given experiment actually measures what it set out to measure
40
opiods mimic what endogenous hormone? where is this hormone produced?
1. opiod analgesics mimic the effect of **endorphin** hormones—»naturally inhibit pain by blocking the release of NTs at nociceptors
2. produced in the **anterior pituitary gland**
41
Arousal Theory
1. Posits that people behave or act in certain ways to maintain a level of optimal arousal which varies from person to person
2. **Yerkes-Dodson Law**: states that performance of a behavior tends to be negatively impacted at high and low levels of arousal -optimal level is at midpoint of upsidedown u-curve w/arousal on x-axis
42
Internal Locus of Control
1. term to describe when a person interprets what happens to them and why things happen to them as something that they have control over in their lives
43
Nominal Level of Measurement
1. variables with no inherent order or ranking
2. Ex: gender, race, etc.
44
what would a drive-reduction & cognitive theorist argue is most strongly correlated with depression?
1. _Drive reduction theories_ suggest that depression stems from a reduction in the motivating forces of arousal
_2. cognitive theorist_ would argue that arousal is essential to sustaining most behaviors
45
Folkways
1. norms that govern everyday behavior
2. Ex: holding a door open
46
Taboos
1. unacceptable by almost every culture
2. Ex: cannibalism/incest
47
"door-in-the-face" technique of persuasion
1. an intiial request is unreasonably large, ∴ rejected—»this request is followed by a smaller, more reasonable request, which is likely to be accepted.
48
Negative Reinforcement
reinforcing behavior by removing a stimulus (usually negative–i.e. chores) after the good action is completed
49
The Stroop Effect
- phenomenon in which it is harder for an individual to reconcile differnt pieces of information relating to colors than to reconcile similar pieces of information
- EX: more difficult to say GREEN (shown in red color) vs. GREEN (shown in green color)
50
Content Validity
1. the extent to which a study appears to assess what it is intended to assess
51
External Validity
1. the degree to which the findinds of a study are generalizable to the population as a whole
2. typically involves issues regarding the size and representativeness of the sample
52
Ratio level of measurement
1. measurement = quantitiative responses
2. ordered at equally-spaced intervals
3. possible score of 0 (complete abscence of quantity)
4. Ex: the number of times a person has been to church in the last month
53
Anomie Theory
1. states that individuals who experience weakened social values are less likely to behave in ways that are helpful to that society
2. breakdown of social bonds, norms—»use strain theory to study how social breakdown of anomie can lead to social deviance and crime, which in turn reinforces social stratification and dysfunction
54
General Strain Theory
1. holds that individuals who have experienced negative events feel negative emotions, which lead to negative behaviors
55
Unconditioned Stimulus
1. stimulus that produces the unconditioned response
2. ex: US = food in Pavlov's expt (unconditioned response = salvation)
56
Attrition Bias
1. systematic error when participants drop out of a study over time affecting the results
57
The Stanford Prison experiment illustrated that those who assume abuses in criminal institutions are done by those w/dispositional propensities to violence are commiting what type of error?
1. Fundamental Attribution Error—» experiment showed that anyone can act in the way participants did under the right conditions (NOT personality characteristics)
2. type of bias that tends to place less importance on the context of behavior, and instead places unneccessary emphasis on dispositional/internal qualities to explain behavior.
58
Operant Conditioning
1. type of associative learning that uses reinforcement to encourage a behavior and punishment to discourage it
2. Types of punishment/reinforcement...
a) **Positive Punishment**: adding an unpleasant stimuls to discourage behavior
b) **Negative Punishment**: removing a pleasant stimulus to discourage behavior
c) **Positive Reinforcement**: adding a pleasant stimulus to encourage behavior
d) **Negative Reinforcemen**t: removing an unpleasant stiimuls to encourage behavior
59
Mediating Variable
1. one which explains the relationship between two other variables
2. Ex: if its found that caucasian patients are perscribed more pain medication than hispanic patients, and that there were differences in insurance coverage between the two groups, than insurance converage is considered the mediating variable
60
Ordinal/Interval Level of Measurement
1. variables with an ordered series, without possible measure of 0
2. Ex: blood group, performance, degree of belief in the afterlife
61
Test-Retest Bias
1. happens when participants take the same exam over and over again, affecting their responses
62
Neustress
- neutral type of stress
- happens when you are exposed to something strtessful, but it doesnt actively or directly affect you (i.e. knews about natural disaster on other side of world)
63
ecological validity
1. refers to how findings from an experimental setting can be generalized to the environmental considerations in the real world
64
Wernicke's Area
1. breain region that controls the comprehension of speech and written language
2. located at the back of the temporal lobe (posterior to sylvian fissure)
65
Functionalist Theory (Social Stratification)
1. Functionalism: views society as a system of interconnected parts that carry out a specific role that enables them to cooperate to maintain social equilibrium for society as a whole
2. functionalist theories assert aspects of culture are necessary and need-based—»social stratification is necessary & results from the need for those w/special intelligence/skills to be a part of those important occupations
66
What are the ethical considerations that apply to all research studies?
1. informed consent
2. expt conducted in least harmful way possible that is consistent w/the research goals ("degree" of harm evaluated by IRB)
67
Reward Power
ability to motivate action/pursuade by promising rewards (opposite of coercive)
68
Stereotyping
- a cognitive action, not a behavior
- a prevalent, but oversimplified idea about a certain group w/similar characteristics (race, gender, sexual orientation)
- stereotypes sometimes may be right, but since they are generalizations the obscure the nuances btwn individuals in a stereotyped group
- EX: if i believe all the people who wear red are loud and annoying
69
Eustress
positive type of stress that happens when you perceive a situation as challenging, but motivating (usually enjoyable
70
Mores
1. norms that are deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a society/consequences if violated
2. Ex: health behavior standards —» if person doesnt seek help, might be shunned by family/friends
71
Social Desirability Bias
1. bias related to how people respond to research questions—»if you have an awareness of what the research is going to ask, might cause you to respond a certain way
2. Ex: study in which participants feel pressured to respond in way that minimizes ethnocentrism and promotes cultural relativism
72
Conflict Theory
1. emphasizes role of coercion and power in producing social order —» society is fragmented into groups competing for resources
2. social order is maintained by those w/most power (i.e. political, economic, or social capital)
3. Ex: conflict theory asserts bias and inequality are underlying aspects of education
73
what are the emotions that have been found to be universally expressed?
1. anger
2. happiness
3. disgust
4. sadness
5. fear
6. surprise
74
Selection Bias
type of bias related to how many people are chosen to participate —» people who can relate to whatever you are studying are more inclined to sign up and be studied
75
Self-Serving Bias
1. tendency to attribute good outcomes with internal factors (i.e. hard work) & ascribe bad outcomes to external factors (i.e. boss not giving raise = poverty)
76
How is compliance induced within a target group?
1. Copmliance is induced in groups that view themselves as similar
77
Relative Poverty
1. refers to condition where person lacks the minimium income/resources needed to maintin the average standard of living for a community or society
2. Ex American poverty
78
Anomie
1. refers to society feeling fragmented and lacking cohesiveness
2. breakdown of social bonds (i.e. social norms btwn individuals & communities)
3. characteristics of anomie (social breakdown) can lead to social deviance and crime—»reinforces social stratification and dysfunction
79
Attributional Theory
relates to an attempt by an individual to interpret actions by assigning causes to them
80
reciprocal determinism
1. Albert Bandura—»theory that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the environment
81
Subjective Norms
1. refer to the perceived social pressure to engage or to not engage in a behavior
82
3 High-Level Sociological Theories of MCAT
1. **Symbolic Interactionism:** focuses on symbolic meaning that people develop and rely upon in the process of social interactions
2. **Conflict Theory:** emphasizes role of coercion and power in producing social order —» society is fragmented into groups competing for resources
**3. Functionalism:** views society as a system of interconnected parts that carry out a specific role that enables them to cooperate to maintain social equilibrium for society as a whole
83
Assimilation
1. term that occurs when an individual from one culture gradually takes on characteristics of another culture
84
Resercher (Experimenter) Bias
1. occurs when a study's design is biased—»process where the scientists performing the research influence the results, in order to portray a certain outcome.
85
How would one improve the internal validity of an experiment?
1. by adding additional measurement points to prevent interference from counfounding variables
86
representative heuristic
1. tendency to make decisions about actions or events based on our standard representations of those events
2. cognitive bias
87
Binary Nominal Level of Measurement
1. variables with only 2 options
2. Ex: pass/fail, belief vs. not believe in god, etc.
88
Types of Validity:
1. Construct
2. external
3. criterion
1. **Construct Validity**: the manner in which the terms of the study are defined
2. **External Validity**: refers to the generalizabiltiy of the research to settings beyond the study
3. **Criterion Validity**: refers to whether a variable is able to predict a certain outcome
89
Construct Validity
1. **Construct Validity**: the manner in which the terms of the study are defined
90
Criterion Validity
**Criterion Validity**: refers to whether a variable is able to predict a certain outcome
91
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
92
Conditioned Stimulus
1. stimulus that is presented after the US in order to ellicit the UR
2. Ex: CS = bell in Pavlov expt (CR = salvation)
93
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
1. posits that _cognitive_ and _physiological_ responses to a stimulus _occur simultaneously_ and _independently_ of one another, with a behavioral response following them
* **physiological arousal does not have to occur for individuals to feel an emotion**
2. lacks any element of cognitive appraisal/conscous thought about how one's situation may impact emotions
3. Ex: *aggressive emotions from listening to angry music*—»simultaneous subjective feeling of aggression and physiological arousal that are separate and independent
94
Persuasion
1. Persuasion: a form of social influence in which an individual or group is encouraged to adopt an idea, atitude, or course of action
2. Ex: pursuasion techniques often used by advertisers to achieve compliance from consumers (i.e. buy their product)
95
Cognitive Dissonance
- the unpleasent feeling a person experiences when holding two contradictory beliefs at the same time—» posits that peopel desire consistency btwn their thoughts, values, and actions, and seek to explain the justifications people use for actions that do not align with their values and evoke cognitive dissonance
- EX: father (who's also a high school teacher) tells son not to go to college to save money, but also responded that higher education is extremely important in a survey
- EX: tendency of bystanders to avoid intervening in conflict even though they would want others to intervene for them
96
negativity bias
1. when the negative aspects of a situation are focused upon, not the good aspects
2. Ex: only focusing on bad grades while ignoring the good ones
3. cognitive bias
97
fixed-ratio schedule
behavior is reinforced after an average, but unpredictable, number of responses
- EX: rat gets treat every 3rd push of level
98
French & Raven's Bases of Power Model
1. social psychologist model that defined multiple bases of power to capture the idea that power can stem from various sources and be exerted in diverse ways
2. **Power**: general sociology term, that refers to an individuals abilitiy to compel other people to do things.
5 power bases are...
A) Coercive B) Legitimate C) Expert D) Referent E) Reward
99
in a study where participants spend 10, 20, or 30 sec looking at a complex image.the image is then removed and replaced w/an identical image except for one small change. researchers measure how long it takes them to find the change. what is the IV?
IV = the time spend looking at the original image
100
Normative vs. Informational Influence
1. **Normative Influence**: an influence to conform with the expectations of others to gain social approval
2. **Informational Influence:** an influence to accept information from others as evidence about reality a
101
test-test Reliability:
**test-test Reliability:** refers to fact that good tests will yield stable results over time - EX: taking MCAT 1x/year w/out studying over time, you would get basically the same results every time b/c MCAT has goog test taking reliabiltiy
102
inter-rater Reliability:
**inter-rater REliability:** means that if an assessment is carried out by different researchers, they should generate similar results - EX: SAT essay graded on scale of 1-6—»good inter-rater reliability b/c same essay is given the same score regardless of which person scores it
103
Erikson's Stages of Development
104
Groupthink
1. refers to when a group of people has such a strong desire for harmony and conformity that the group makes irrational decisions
105
Variable Ratio Schedule
- occur when behavior is reinforced after an average, but unpredictable, number of responses
- **tend to produce the highest response rates**
- EX: rat tree dispenser set to dispense a treat after an average of 1/10 presses, but the exact number of presses btwn rewards varies
106
distress
negative type of stress that builds over time and is bad for your body—»occurs in percieved stressful situations, body is primed to respond to threat
107
Legitimate Power
1. the ability to compel action through a sense of social or cultural authority
2. group members believe the person ought to have power b/c of their position/responsibilities
3. arise out of law, contract, etc. (i.e. president = legitimate power)
108
Confounding Variable
1. a variable not typically of interest to the researcher but is an extraneous variable which is related to BOTH the dependent and independent variables
2. Ex: relation between class size and test performance
- Class time spent learning = **mediator variable**
- SES of parents = **moderating variable**
- private vs. public school = **confounding variable**
109
locus of control
1. the extent to which an individual believes he is in control of events that affect him
110
What measure of central tendency most accurately captures average wealth of most americans and why?
1. Median American Wealth
2. Medians are less sensitive to outliers (specifically the upper range, who disproportionally increase mean wealth value)
111
Parallell Processing
- detect/focus all information (color, form, motion) at same time
112
Functionalism
1. views society as a system of interconnected parts that carry out a specific role that enables them to cooperate to maintain social equilibrium for society as a whole
113
self-reported information in any study is subject to what type of bias?
Subjective Bias (bias based on your onwn personal likes and dislikes)
114
fixed-interval schedule
occur when behavior is reinforced after a specific amount of time passes
- EX: semi-monthly paydays
115
Absolute Poverty
1. refers to deprivation of basic needs like food, potable water, shelter, and healthcarex
2. Ex: 3rd world countries
116
Referent Power
1. individual exerts control by appealing to others' desire to belong to a group
2. appeals to individuals through external factors (appearing wanted, feeling included, no logic/evidence)—»more likely to pursuade a low-motivation/low-knowledge individual
117
Belief Bias
1. tendency that people have to judge things based not upon sound logic, but upon already held beliefs
2. Cognitive bias
118
Compliance Vs. Persuasion
**Compliance**: when an individual changes behavior in response to a direct request
**Pursuasion**: a form of social influence in which an individual or group is encouraged to adopt an idea
119
Why do the frontal lobe, limbic system structures, and hypothalamus all play a role in the development of depression?
1. Frontal Lobe—»involved in ability to project future consequences of current actions
2. Limbic—»regulate emotion and memory
3. Hypothalamus—» coordinates many hormones (some are involved in mood regulation)
120
Learned Helplessness
1. describes a situation in which a person makes many attempts to solve a problem, and they are not effective—»over time this results in a feeling of helplessness
2. learned helplessness is associated w/depression
121
Schachter-Singer Theory
•emotional processing involves 3 steps:
1. physiological arousal
2. cognitive interpretation
3. experience of emotion
• EX: julia pets cat, her BP decreases and brain releases oxytocin. then thinks of how much she loves her cat and feels happy as a result
122
Interposition
- Perception that one object is in front of another (overlap)
- an object that is in the front is closer
123
ethnocentrism
a worldview in which one's own culture and traditions are seen as inherently superior to those of other people
-propogated from generation to generation through cultural channels (most important = family)
124
Social Facilitation
1. the tendency that people have to perform simple tasks better or more efficientyly when in the presence of other people
2. inversely, performing a new complex task in front of others can hinder performance
125
availability heuristic
1. people make judgements overly based on information that is immediately available to them
2. Ex: judging event as not risky cause friends have not recently suffered consequences
3. Cognitiev bias
126
Is it unethical to deliver shocks to study participants?
1. NO—»conducting ethical research doesnt necessarily mean that any/all techniques that are uncomfortable to the patient (i.e. shock delivery)
2. shock delivery = fairly common research method
127
double approach-avoidant conflict
**double approach-avoidant**: consist of two options with both appealing and negative characteristics
128
approach-approach conflict
**approach-approach:** two options are both appealing
129
Avoidant-avoidant conflict
**Avoidant-avoidant**: both options are unappealing
130
Approach-Avoidant Conflict
approach-avoidant: observed when one option has both positive and negative aspects
131
**Yerkes-Dodson Law**
**Yerkes-Dodson Law:** states that performance of a behavior tends to be negatively impacted at high and low levels of arousal -optimal level is at midpoint of upsidedown u-curve w/arousal on x-axis
132
Positive punishment
adding an adverse stimulus/consequence that decreases behavior
133
gated ion channels in the ear are triggered: mechanically, chemically, electrically, or synaptically?
Mechanically
134
electrical skin conductivety is used as a measure of?
electrical skin conductivity is a physiological indication of increased sympathetic arousal—»which can be associated with anxiety
135
Researchers compliting a study with anxious people decide to include highly anxious individuals from the study, why would they do this?
1. outliers in the expt lead to confounding and or errors instatistical infrences
136
Social Facilitation
tendency to perform at a different level (better or worse) when others are around
137
obedience
change in behavior based on a command from someone seen as an authority figure
138
When are experiemental methods not suggested?
1. research on residential segregation (cannot randomly assign participants into groups where segregation is manipulated as IV) 2. experiements in whic you have to manipulate participants psychological states and their sensitivitiy to those states
139
how are mean, mode, median, range, and SD affected by outliers?
1. Mean: impacted heavily by outliers 2. Median: unaffected by outliers 3. Mode: not affected by outliers 5. Range: heavily impacted by outliers 5. SD:: affected by outliers
140
Social Network Analysis
1. maps the series of relationships among a set of individuals
141
Behaviorist Theory
1. Personality is a learning process of operant conditioning controlled by the environment—»focuses on the role of reinforcement and punisment in shaping behavior 2. People have response tendencies which create behavior patterns. 3. Childhood not the crucial period as the environment-based learning continues through life.
142
Working Memory
1. the part of short-term memory that is concerned with immediate conscious perceptual and linguistic processing. 2. magic number for working memory capacity = 7 ± 2
143
sensory memory
1. sensory memory processes information within \<1sec, first type of memory to be activiated (before working memory)
144
Reference Group
1. A group against which an individual (or other group) is compared 2. group that assimilating individual will reference to try and become more like them
145
Procedural Memory
1. memory for the performan of marticular types of action
146
Episodic Memory
1. memory of events/experiences in one's life
147
role strain
1. the tension that result from competing demand within the context of a sing role
148
What are teh differences between small vs. big groups within the context of basic group dynamics in sociology?
1. Big Groups: more stable but less intimate 2. Small groups: less stable but more intimate
149
Mixed-Methods Study
1. research design that employs both a quantitative and qualitiative component
150
Conflict Theory
1. emphasizes the competition between groups over the allocation of societal resources 2. assume power and authority are uneequally distributed across a society
151
Discriminative Stimuli
1. 2. EX: praise—»
152
Intrinsic Motivation
based on internal drive or perception
153
Extrinsic Motivation
based on external circumstances
154
Role Conflict
conflict between multiple roles (Eg: being a doctor and a soldier at the same time
155
Case Study
1. A snapshot study of a population at a given time 2. subjects are hand picked for a detailed analysis 3. Quantitative data. tangible, hard data, objective info.
156
Traditional Behaviorist Approach
holds that only actual outcome of a behavior determine whether that behavior will be repeated
157
Incongruence (Roger's Concepts)
Incongruence: refers to the gap between a person's actual self and ideal self
158
Hindsight Bias
1. refers to the tendency for a person to overestimate how well he or she coudl have successfully predicted a known outcome 2. i.e. the "i knew it all along effect" —» Ex: forcast given before the outcome was known
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Base Rate Fallacy
1. refers to the error people make when they ignore the base rates (i.e. prior probabilities) when evaluaing the probabilities (or frequencies) of events
160
Glass Escalator
1. suggests men who pursue occupations w/high proportions of women (i.e. teaching/nursing) will quickly ascend their career ladder with promotions 2. Ex: men being promoted to supervisory roles faster than female counterparts
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Functional Fixedness
1. refers to people's tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions—»this can inhibit solving problems
162
Overconfidence Effect
1. refers to the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgements
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Socialization
1. Socialization: the lifelong process through which a person becomes an active participant in their culture—»defined by language, customs, and values. 2. The process is intricately tied to the development of self-identity. 3. Ex: student's learning of school norms & peer values in school setting
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Positive (Direct) Correlation
the values of both variables change in the same direction. As variable X increases, variable Y increases, and vice versa.
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Negative (inverse) Correlation
the values of both variables change in opposite directions. As variable X increases, variable Y decreases, and vice versa.
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Reaction Formation
1. Expressing the opposite of what one really feels, when it would feel too dangerous to express the real feeling 2. Ex: acting hateful toward someone whom one is sexually attracted to
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Maldaptiveness
1. criterion takes into account whether the behavior negatively impacts the person's life, or poses a threat to others
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Parkinson's Disease
1. patients w/PD suffer from insufficent dopamine levels 2. Symptoms: decreased mobility, tremors
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Schemas
blueprints for perception—»How to THINK about a situation
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Scripts
1. sets of BEHAVIORS for a specific interaction. 2. the "proper"/generally accepted way to act in a social situation 3. Ex: going to resturaunt and asking for menu
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Observational Learning
1. learning that occurs when you're watching others' behavior 2. Ex: social learning
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Gender Socialization
1. Learning of norms and values associated with masculinity or femininity. 2. Gender norms related to masculinity include the encouragement of high-risk behaviors (i.e. heavy drinking in males)
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What are the 3 components that comprise attitude?
1. Cognitive: component of an attitude that consists of an individual’s beliefs about the attitude object 2. Affective: component of an attitude that consists of the emotional experience evoked by the attitude object 3. Behavioral: component of an attitude that consists of the typical responses made when the individual is in the presence of the attitude object
174
Assessments of alcohol dependence generally involve which indicator?
alcohol dependence is MOST STRONGLY indicated by WITHDRAWL SYMPTOMS
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Big 5 Personality Traits
1. Openess: 2. Conscientiousness: 3. Extraversion: 4. Agreeableness: 5. Neuroticism: •Acronym = O.C.E.A.N. \*Insert photo for low vs. high scorers\*\*
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Overextension
1. Overextension: the term for applying a term for one class of objects to other objects that bear only a superficial resemblance 2. Ex: “doggie” for a cow
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The naming explosion
1. A sudden increase in an infant's vocabulary, especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18 months of age
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categorical perception
1. refers to the ability: to make distinctions between speech sounds and their meanings.
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bootstrapping
1. refers to the idea that humans are born innately equipped with a mental faculty that forms the basis of language 2. Ex: semantic bootstrapping—»linguistic theory of language acquisition which proposes that children can acquire the syntax of a language by first learning and recognizing semantic elements and building upon that knowledge
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Systematic Desensitization
classical conditioning technique in which the intensity of an unconditioned stimulus is gradually increased until it no longer elicits the conditioned response.
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Elaborative Encoding
1. refers to combining new (to-be-remembered) information with existing memory representations, which enhances the probability of retrieving that new information. 2. NOT used in discussions of the acquisition of any operant response.
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Shaping
1. Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations of a behavior. It is utilized to establish a novel behavior
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Spontaneous Recovery
the process by which a previously extinguished behavioral response returns after a delay (i.e., a rest period) following extinction.
184
Monocular Depth Cues
1. Monocular are distance cues available to either eye alone 2. Examples: A) Linear Perspective—»the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance (i.e retinal height = objects higher in visual field are percieved as farther away than objects lower in the visual field) B) Occulsion—» objects that are obstructed by other objects percieved as being father away than the objects doing the obstruction
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Binocular Depth Cues
1. Binocular are depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes 2. Examples: A) Retinal disparity—» using the distance from the object of focus as a depth cue B) convergence—» both your eyes moving medially to focus on a single object (i.e. when you stick your finger in front of your face and go cross-eyed)
186
Culture Lag
occurs when norms and values have yet to catch up with technological advances
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Inverse Effect
1. an inverse effect that provides evidence for causation (BUT THIS IS VERY HARD TO PROVE IN AN EXPERIMENTAL SETTING)
188
what are the 4 major categories of stressors? which is the most harmful?
1. _major/significant life changes_: chronically problematic, potentially negative, relatively rare in person's life
* Ex: cancer
2. _catastrophic events_ —» events that are out of the control of individuals that experience them
* Ex: war, enviornmental disaster, terrorism
3. _daily hassles_ —» **Most Harmful (small daily stress adds up to seriou net stress levels)**
4. _ambient stressors_ —» events in the background of most individual's lives
* pollution, noise, crowding
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problem-focused coping
* kind of coping aimed at resolving the stressful situation or event or altering the source of the stress.
* EX:
* taking control of the stress (e.g., problem solving or removing the source of the stress),
* seeking information or assistance in handling the situation,
* removing oneself from the stressful situation.
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**proactive coping**
**proactive coping**—» Anticipation is when one reduces the stress of some difficult challenge by anticipating what it will be like and preparing for how one is going to cope with it.
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appriasial-focused coping
* Appraisal-focused (adaptive cognitive) strategies occur when the person modifies the way they think
* EX: employing denial, or distancing oneself from the problem.
* alter goals, values, and even see the **humor** in a situation
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emotion-focused coping
* Emotion-focused coping is a mechanism to alleviate distress by minimizing, reducing, or preventing, the emotional components of a stressor
* EX:
* releasing pent-up emotions
* distracting oneself
* managing hostile feelings
* **meditating**
* using systematic relaxation procedures.
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recurrent acute stress experience associated with PTSD would most probably manifest in...
_[**brochodilatation** / **bronchoconstriction**]?_
Bronchodialation—» inc. diameter of airways w/fight or flight response
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Percieved control
* coping mechanism for "taking back control of your life" —» taking more active role in parts of your life youre capable of controling
* Ex: low socioeconomic status ppl cannot control financial situation so they look for other avenues to take control and cope with stress
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optimism
* adaptive coping mechanism for dealing with percieved stress
* importance of **humor** for dec. stress
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social support
* one of **best** coping mechanisms for stress—»help to allieviate feelings of being alone
* associated w/better health, exercise, and sleep
* Ex: close friends, marriage, pets
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_Negative Coping Mechanisms_
1. escape,
2. rumination,
3. resignation,
4. self-blame,
5. avoidance.
6. sensitization
1. **escape**: the avoidance of unpleasant, boring, arduous, scary, or banal aspects of daily life
2. **rumination:** the focused attention on the symptoms of one's distress, and on its possible causes and consequences, as opposed to its solutions
3. **resignation:** basically learned helplessness
4. **self-blame:** individual attributes the occurrence of a stressful event to oneself.
5. **avoidance:** a maladaptive coping mechanism characterized by the effort to avoid dealing with a stressor.
6. **sensitization:** anticipate the stressor coming up, but do everything in your power to AVOID it from happening in the first place.
* Eg - you know the MCAT is coming up so instead of spending all your time practicing, you google how and when you can cancel the exam, google the deadlines like gold silver and bronze, look for ways how and why you should void it etc.
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Stress Management Techniques
1. **Exercise**: dec. risk for cardiovascular disease
2. **Meditation**: lower HR, BP, cholesterol
3. **Religious Belief/Faith:** social supports/beter life practices (no drinking, drugs, etc.)
4. **Cognitive Flexibility:** ability to adapt the cognitive processing strategies to face new and unexpected conditions in the environment
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Token
* **Token:** reinforcement system/therapy tool to increase appropriate behavior
* tokens are traded in for a reinforcer (day off, trip, etc.)
200
identity vs. confusion
* **identity vs. confusion:** fifth stage of ego according to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development
* occurs during _adolescence_ between the ages of approximately _12 and 18._
* Erikson believed that individuals begin to develop a sense of self during adolescence (identity vs. confusion)
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Vicarious conditioning
* Also known as operant conditioning, process of learning to respond in a particular way by viewing others
* EX: acquiring fear of light b/c you saw someone else get shocked when the light came on
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Decay theories of memory loss are most appropriate for \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
* Short-term and sensory memory
* forgetting short-term info can be explained w/theories fo trace decay and displacement—»memories leave trace in the brain and **decay theory** states forgetting occurs as a result of the automatic decay of the memory trace
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\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is a neurological disorder that causes a sudden, irresistible urge to sleep that lasts 1-30min during the day time.
Narcolepsy
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**T/F:** Basic wants or cravings can manifest themselves as unconscious desires in dreams
True
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Immediately before sleep, EEG shows a shift to patterns of larger and slower waves called __________ waves.
alpha waves
206
**T/F:** In psychology, there is disagreement as to whether or not animals can actually be taught a language.
True
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hypnic (hypnagonic) jerk
an involunary twitch that occurs right when a person is starting to fall asleep—»often causes them to awake suddenly
208
Multiple personality or dissociative identity disorder most often begins __________ due to \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
* childhood
* as a result of unbearable experiences
209
Absolute Threshold
* the smallest level of energy required by an external stimulus to be detectable by the human senses (vision, hearing, taste, smell and touch)
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\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ________ \_\_\_\_\_\_ __________ occurs through examining the changes in an object's position over time through feature tracking in the retina
Second-order motion (visual) perception
211
Panic Disorder
psychiatric disorder in which debilitating anxiety and fear arise frequently and without reasonable cause.
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Agoraphobia
* characterized by anxiety symptoms in reaction to situations where the sufferer perceives the environment to be dangerous, uncomfortable, or unsafe.
* most often involve wide-open spaces and uncontrollable social situations.
213
A person who is preoccupied with irrational fears of having a serious disease suffers from \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
hypochondriasis.
214
Decay
* the fading of memory traces from short-term memory
* **Trace decay theory** states that forgetting occurs as a result of the automatic decay or fading of the memory trace
215
Sensory adaptation
a change over time in the responsiveness of the sensory system to a constant stimulus.
216
Social statics
focused on aspects of social life that have to do with order, stability, and social organization that allow societies and groups to hold together and endure
217
The view that sociologists must not allow their personal biases to affect the conduct of their research is called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
* **Value-Free Sociology**
* posited by Weber—» sociologists should observe value neutrality while conducting social research
* exclude ideological or non -scientific assumptions from research and not make evaluative judgment about empirical evidence.
218
Examples of Contemporary sociology
1. postmodernism,
2. feminism,
3. critical theory.
219
Resocialization
* the process by which one's sense of social values, beliefs, and norms are reconditioned
* achieved through an intense social process that often takes place in a total institution.
220
Positivism
* The idea that one can scientifically and logically study social institutions and the individuals within them
* the theory that laws are best understood as social rules, valid because they are enacted by authority or derive logically from existing decisions.
221
Nonmaleficence
Term for non-harming or inflicting the least harm possible to reach a beneficial outcome
222
The halo effect
the tendency to use a global characteristic (such as attractiveness or likability) to determine specific personality traits.
223
The Humanistic Viewpoint
1. emphasizes free will, self-image, and self-actualization
2. system of thought attaching prime important to human rather than divine—»focus on ability of humans to undergo conscious psychological development
224
Expansion
expanding is restating, in a more complex linguistic form, what a young child has said (EX: "water go" —»» "yes, the water goes down the drain"
225
Self-Actualization (Maslow)
1. Self-Actualization: the desire for self-fulfilment—»tendency for the individual to develop one's full potential
226
Frame of Reference
* a complex set of assumptions and attitudes which we use to filter perceptions to create meaning
* EX: beliefs, schemas, preferences, values, culture, and other ways in which we bias our understanding and judgment.
227
Just-Noticeable Difference (Difference Threshold)
**just-noticeable difference**: the amount something must be changed in order for a difference to be detectable at least half the time.
228
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is a term used in psychoanalytic theory to describe the energy created by survival and sexual instincts.
* **Libido**
* Freud believed the libido is part of the id and is the driving force of all behavior/personality
229
Feature Detectors
•brain cells that analyze incoming sensory info into lines, angles, shading, and movement
230
What are McConnell's 3 brainwashing techniques?
1. isolation
2. dependency
3. reward
231
Subliminal Perception
the perception of, or reaction to, a stimulus that occurs wthout awareness by the subject —» too rapid/weak to be consciously recognized
232
The eyes scan the visual field by jumping quickly from one focus to another in \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, rather than smoothly tracking from point to point.
Saccades
233
Which sensory receptor is found in greatest abundance in the skin?
Nociceptors—» pain receptors
234
A ________ is a threshold below which a stimulus is not perceived or is not distinguished from another.
Limen
235
Sense organs in the joints and muscles most directly contribute to our __________ sense.
**Kinesthetic** —» the sense that detects weight, body position, and movements of joints, muscles, and tendons
236
In _________ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, parallel lines that recede into the distance appear to get closer together or converge.
linear perspective (i.e. railroad tracks come together in the distance)
237
Perceptual Constancy
**Perceptual constancy**: perceiving familiar objects as having standard shape, size, color, and location regardless of changes in the angle of perspective, distance, and lighting
238
The _____ \_\_\_ ________ serves as the basis for cognitive dissonance theory.
* Need for Consistency
* cognative dissonance = situations involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors —»
239
Secondary vs. Primary Reinforcer
* **Primary Reinforcer** = biological needs (food, drink, reproductive drives)
* **Secondary Reinforcer** = needs that are conditioned to desire (GPA, money, etc.)
240
Low-ball Technique
when you get an individual to agree to your request and then afterwards you increase the orginal terms to ask for more
241
Recoding, chunking, and rehearsal are especially important for the improvement of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
short term memory efficiency
242
Appraisal Theory of Emotions
* stress arises less from physical events but more from the assessment/interpretation of those stresses/events —» _Appraisal_
* **Primary Appraisal:** assessment of stress in the present situation
* 3 categories = *irrelevant, benign/positive, or stressful/negative*
* if primary appraisal is negative—»progrress to secondary appraisal
* **Secondary Appraisal:** evalutaiton of individual's ability to cope with the stressor
* 3 categories = *apprasial of harm, threat, and challenege (how to overcome it)*
243
**Primary Appraisal**
* **Primary Appraisal:** assessment of stress in the present situation
* 3 categories:
* _irrelevant_: i see the stress but its not important
* _benign_/_positive_: good stress (i.e. heavy rain is good, because now you don’t have to wake up early and go to school since classes are suspended)
* _stressful_/_negative_: threatening stressor
* if primary appraisal is negative—»progrress to secondary appraisal
244
**Secondary Appraisal**
* **Secondary Appraisal:** evaluation of individual's ability to cope with the stressor
* 3 categories
* _apprasial of harm_: what damage has been caused?
* _threat_: how much damage can be caused?
* _challenege:_ how to overcome the stressor
245
What are the 4 main categories of stressors?
1. **Significant Life Changes:** Signiant changes in your personal life.
* Ex: death of loved one, marriage, loss of job, kids, leaving home, etc.
2. **Catastrophic Events:** A large scale event that everyone considers threatening
* Ex: wars, natural disasters, etc.
3. **Daily Hassles:** Seemingly minor events/hassles of daily life
* ****Ex: long store lines, forgetting car keys, email span, dead car battery
* often coincide with low SES—»low income = more daily hassles (even racism)
4. **Ambient Stressors:** Global stressors that are integrated into the environment. Perceivable, but hard to control.
* Can negatively impact us without us being aware of them —» Stuff we just put up with in our lives.
* ****Ex: pollution, noise, crowding, Etc.
246
Stressor: **Significant Life Changes**
* **Significant Life Changes:** Signiant changes in your personal life.
* Ex: death of loved one, marriage, loss of job, kids, leaving home, etc.
247
Stressor: **catastrophic events**
* **Catastrophic Events**: A large scale event that everyone considers threatening
* Ex: wars, natural disasters, etc.
248
Stressor: **Daily Hassles**
**Daily** **Hassles**: Seemingly minor events/hassles of daily life
* Ex: long store lines, forgetting car keys, email span, dead car battery
* often coincide with low SES—»low income = more daily hassles (even racism)
249
Stressor: **Ambient Stressors**
**Ambient Stressors**: Global stressors that are integrated into the environment.
* Perceivable, but hard to control.
* Can negatively impact us without us being aware of them —» Stuff we just put up with in our lives.
* Ex: pollution, noise, crowding, Etc.
250
How does increasing the levels of thyroid hormone affect oxygen consumtion in tissue?
* **TSH—»T4—»T3**
* T3 & T4 regulate cellular metabolism by inc. cellular respiration —» thereby resulting in **inc. rates of oxygen consumption**
251
Parkinson's Disease
1. **Cause:**
252
Gestalt Law of Continuity
he law of continuity states that lines are seen as following the smoothest path
253
Bottom-Up Processing
* Bottom up processing relies on the stimulus to influence what we perceive —» its data driven & perception directs cognition
* EX: Seeing an object for the first time
* seeing a novel object for the first time necessitates that you do not have a pre-existing mental representation of the object, you are relying on the stimulus (the novel object) to guide your perception.
254
Sound travels along a similar path to light. Which portion of the auditory pathway most closely corresponds to the rods and cones?
**Hair Cells**
255
Why might the individuals from the IP group be able to sense changes in temperature at all?
256
What medical issues is most likely to be a problem for an individual with congenital analgesia?
* **_anhidrosis:_** the inability to sweat.
* People w/congenital analgesia are missing nerve fibers that connect information about heat or pain to the brain ∴ they often cannot sweat.
* *_Congenital analgesia_* —» the inability to sense pain or temperature
257
1. 5 steps of Phototransduction Cascade?
2. What happens to the cytoplasmic concentrations of sodium and calcium ions in photoreceptors at night?
2. cGMP-dependent Na+ channels are mostly open when light is absent —» ∴ ions such as calcium and sodium are able to move into the cell **leading to an increase in their concentration intracellularly**
* The phototransduction cascade leads to a decrease in the cGMP molecules present in the cell, and ∴ closure of ion channels
258
iIf the fightflight response is initiated, the blood vessels in skeletal muscle tissue will [**dialate**/**constrict**]?
**Dialate**—»inc. blood flow to skeletal muscle, lungs, heart
259
Fight or Flight Physiological Responses?
1. Digestion?
2. Blood flow?
3. Breathing?
4. Heart rate?
5. Pupils?
6. Genitourinary?
7. Peristalsis?
8. Orgasm?
1. **Digestion?**
* **_inhibits_** digestion
* **_constricts_** intestinal sphincters
2. **Blood flow?**
* _diverts_ bloodflow from GI and skin
* _enhanced_ blood flow to skeletal muscles and lungs
3. **Breathing?**
* **_dialated_** bronchioles for inc. oxygen exchange
4. **Heart rate?**
* **inc**. heart rate = enhanced blood flow to muscles
5. **Pupils?**
* _pupils **dialate**_ and _ciliary musle for lens **relaxes**_
6. **Genitourinary?**
* **_constricts_** uterine spinchters
7. **Peristalsis?**
1. ******_inhibit_** peristalsis
8. **Orgasm?**
1. ****_stimulates orgasm_
260
What type of regulatory mechanism is exhibited by the high levels of progesterone acting on the GnRH and LH from the brain?
When the levels of GnRH and LH become too high in the blood, the progesterone, secreted as a result of GnRH and LH must act back on those hormones to inhibit further secretion and maintain a control amount of each hormone in the blood at a time.
261
Null Hypothesis
* A null hypothesis suggests that the two things being tested have no relationship
* **p value \< .05** —» means you reject the null and that the two things being tested have a correlation
* if not statistically significant —» null hypothesis rejected
262
Multiple Sclerosis
1. affects CNS—»autoimmune disease caused by the immune system damaging
263
Huntington's Disease
1.
264
Social Process Model
1. emphasized social interaction and influence in shaping behavior / actions
2. Ex: Employing a social process model in examining heroin addiction, we would likely find that self-perceptions and interpretations are organized according to a user’s social interactions.
265
Labeling theory
1. **Labeling theory** as a concept refers to how deviant individual behavior becomes even more deviant when a person is negatively labeled or classified as such.
* This concept holds that terms used to negatively identify or classify a drug user are considered to also negatively influence the person’s self and social identity.
* This concept indicates that deviant or negative behavior is not inherent; behavior is only deviant when society or other individuals refer to it as deviant.
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