Psychological, Social, And Biological Foundations Of Behavior Flashcards
(145 cards)
1
Q
Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment
A
A desire to merge completely with others
Strong separation anxiety
Tendency to resist contact with the parent
2
Q
Secure Attachment Style
A
A lack of worry about being abandoned by others
Some separation anxiety and seeking contact with the parent
3
Q
Disorganized Attachment Style
A
A confused infant-parent bond
Mixed separation anxiety
Tendency for the infant to resist contact and have a dazed behavior
4
Q
Insight
A
Novel realization of a solution to a problem
5
Q
A critical period
A
A stage, usually in early development, when the individual is more receptive to learning from specific types of experiences compared to later points in development
6
Q
Schemas
A
Knowledge structures that determine one’s expectations in different contexts
7
Q
Heuristics
A
Cognitive “rules of thumb”
General principles derived from experience that help streamline thinking.
Shortcuts to reasoning and problem solving.
They help us make fast, efficient decisions in everyday situations
8
Q
Social interactions are indicators of. . .
A
The behavioral component of an emotional response
9
Q
Amygdala
A
Involved in emotional encoding
10
Q
Parietal lobe
A
Integration of sensory information
11
Q
Prefrontal cortex
A
executive functioning and decision making
12
Q
Hippocampus
A
Involved in memory encoding
13
Q
Rationalization
A
A defense mechanism
Creating a seemingly logical explanation for otherwise unacceptable behavior
14
Q
Superego
A
Conscience developed via the internalization of parental and societal expectations and values.
Demands that one perform to their highest possible standard
15
Q
The ego
A
Balancing the conflicting demands of the id and the superego. When these demands are not met, anxiety is experienced.
Works to resolve unconscious conflicts in a way that reduces anxiety and maintains psychological stability.
16
Q
The id
A
Operates on the pleasure principle—seeking immediate gratification of desires
Creates conflict
17
Q
Emotional displacement
A
Shifting the focus of emotion from a less to more acceptable target
18
Q
Reaction formation
A
Minimizing uncomfortable thoughts or emotions by overemphasizing their opposite.
19
Q
Projection
A
Someone attributes unacceptable thoughts or behaviors within themself to another person.
20
Q
A positive punisher
A
Decreases the frequency of the preceding behavior by introducing an aversive stimulus.
21
Q
A negative punisher
A
Decreases the frequency of the preceding behavior by removing an appetitive stimulus.
22
Q
A negative reinforcer
A
Increases the frequency of the preceding behavior by removing an aversive stimulus
23
Q
A positive reinforcer
A
Increases the frequency of the preceding behavior by introducing an appetitive stimulus
24
Q
Weber’s conceptualization of ideal bureaucracy
A
Specialize in a limited set of tasks, rather than completing a variety of task
Hired and promoted based on objective, technical qualifications
An organizational hierarchy instead of consensus among employees
Skill assessment are conducted using impersonal, standardized rules and procedures
25
Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
Intimacy vs. Isolation stage
Occurs in early adulthood (roughly ages 20–40).
Individuals seek to form deep, meaningful relationships with others.
Success leads to intimacy, while failure to establish close bonds results in isolation and emotional distance.
26
Sociological conceptualization of race and ethnicity
Race and ethnicity are concepts that change over time and location.
An individual might have multiple overlapping racial and ethnic backgrounds that are not mutually exclusive.
Not stable categories primarily based on physical characteristics.
27
Cultural transmission
Refers to the transmission of values and practices from one generation to another.
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Cultural relativism
Indicates evaluating the cultural practices of a different society not from one’s own cultural perspective, but from that society’s perspective.
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Cultural diffusion
Mutual exchange of cultural values and practices among cultural groups in a society or among societies
30
Assimilation
Is a social dynamic where a culture becomes indistinguishable from the majority culture.
31
Standard deviation
A measure of variance which is indicative of consistency
Increases when there is a greater variance in participants' responses
32
Mean
Average score, is not indicative of the consistency of responses.
33
Mode
Most frequent response in a set of data, is a measure of central tendency, not variance.
34
Median
A measure of central tendency and refers to the score that is in the midpoint of all the scores in a data set.
35
Social facilitation
Presence of an audience improves performance.
36
Social loafing
Exerting less effort when pooling efforts
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High elaboration processing
Processing through the central characteristics of a message, which refer to its informational content and the quality of its arguments
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Central route processing
Occurs when the central characteristics of a message, such as its informational content and the quality of its arguments, are used to form an attitude.
39
Careful processing of information
Is more likely to attune participants to the central characteristics in a communication, meaning they’ll focus on the actual content rather than distractions or heuristics.
Relies on superficial cues (e.g., speaker attractiveness or number of arguments) and leads to more temporary or unstable attitude changes.
40
Peripheral route processing
Occurs when peripheral characteristics drive an individual's processing and attitude formation in a given social setting.
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Peripheral characteristics of a communication
Refer to the message characteristics that are not central to the information and arguments presented in the message, such as the emotional appeals made to the audience or characteristics of the individual presenting the message.
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Weber’s law
The minimum change in intensity necessary for the subject to sense that the stimulus has changed is a ratio of the original stimulus intensity.
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Perceptual constancy
Refers to the tendency to experience a stable perception even as the sensory input itself is changing.
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Absolute threshold
Refers to the smallest amount of physical stimulation required to detect a sensory input half the time it is present.
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A confounding variable
A variable that varies with the independent variable and affects the dependent variable.
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Rods
Photoceptors primarily responsible for black-and-white vision, and are mainly found in the periphery of the eye.
Not responsible for color vision
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Cones
Photoreceptors responsible for color vision, and are mainly located in the fovea of the eye.
Responsible for color vision
48
Social inhibition
Occurs when the presence of an audience hinders performance.
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Conformity
Is the altering of one’s own behaviors and opinions to match those of other people or to match others' expectations.
50
Locus of control
Refers to the types of attributions individuals make to explain their outcomes.
Individuals with an external locus of control believe that forces outside of their control primarily contribute to their outcomes.
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Antagonistic effects
Those that oppose the function of a particular molecule
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Agonistic effects
Are those that are consistent with the action of a molecule
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Acetylcholinesterase
Which breaks down acetycholine in the synaptic cleft.
Decreases activity of acetylcholine within the synapse.
54
Donepezil
Acetylcholinesterase inhibitor (AchEI)
Slow acetylcholine degradation
Increases the length of time acetylcholine is present in the synaptic cleft, activating acetylcholine receptors.
Increased acetylcholine activity within the synaptic cleft will therefore be associated with increased agonistic effects.
Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase using donepezil will not directly impact acetylcholine release.
55
Horizontal mobility
Would represent an individual's change of role within the same social class.
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Vertical mobility
Indicates a change in someone's socioeconomic status.
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Intergenerational mobility
Refers to generational change in socioeconomic status across different generations.
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Structural mobility
Refers to social mobility as a result of macro-social changes, generally impacting a significant part of the population.
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A dependent variable
Represents the phenomenon that a research study seeks to explain.
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Independent variable
Explains the variance in the phenomenon observed in a study.
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Medicalization
Refers to the recategorization of a condition as a medical problem that requires diagnosis and treatment by medical experts.
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Looking-glass self
Refers to an individual basing their sense of self on how they think others perceive them.
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Mere exposure effect
Refers to the preference for familiar stimuli over novel stimuli.
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Social comparison
Occurs when individuals compare themselves (favorably or unfavorably) to their social contacts.
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Negative correlation
Indicates an increase in the values of a variable with a decline in the values of another.
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Positive correlation
Indicates an increase in the values of a variable with an increase in the values of another variable.
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Suburbanization
Is the out-migration from cities to suburbs, which often involves middle-class residents leaving behind low-income residents.
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Protective model
It is about the household resources to protect a child from the risks in their social environment.
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The potentiator model
Suggests that certain environmental or social conditions “potentiate”—or increase—the risk of negative outcomes (like illness or maladaptive behavior), particularly among vulnerable individuals.
Would focus on early life events, such as risks in a child's environment
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Labeling theory
Specifically focuses on how deviant behaviors in the past have long-term stigmatizing impacts on individuals.
72
Differential association theory
Focuses on how an individual might learn behaviors, that are considered as deviant in larger society, from their close social environment.
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Ecological perspective
Focuses on the risk factors in an adolescent's local environment
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Disengagement theory
Describes how older people disengage from society.
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Strain theory
Describes how people react to social constraints to achieving goals.
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Front stage
Self refers to an individual's impression management that is consistent with the expectations of a particular social role. This concept would be applicable to how an individual adapts to their social environment when they interact with others in that environment.
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Intersectionality
Indicates that the different aspects of someone’s social background (e.g., race, ethnicity, age, gender, and class) might concomitantly bestow privileges or disadvantages on an individual.
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Social role conflict
Indicates the conflicting demands of two different social roles an individual carries.
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Demographic transition
Refers to the association between the level of socioeconomic development and the balance between fertility and mortality rates in a society.
80
The representativeness heuristic
Refers to the tendency to overestimate the prevalence of representative members of a category while ignoring the base rate.
81
Group polarization
Refers to attitudinal polarization that occurs when a group of like-minded individuals discuss an issue, leading to each individual holding more extreme attitudes at the end of the discussion.
82
Cognitive dissonance
A form of psychological distress experienced when an individual holds two inconsistent attitudes, or when their behavior is inconsistent with their attitudes.
83
Self-efficacy
Is one’s belief about one’s personal ability to perform behaviors that should lead to expected outcomes.
84
Impression management
Is the process by which an individual attempts to manage how they are perceived by others.
85
Self-esteem
Is a person's global evaluation of self-worth.
86
Optimistic bias
More likely to update their beliefs when the information is positive
87
Functional fixedness
A tendency to think of things based on their usual functions.
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Analogy
An approach to problem solving involving the comparison of two distinct things based on resemblance of a particular aspect of each.
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Trial and error
Is an approach to problem solving which involves the testing of possible solutions until one that works is found.
90
Role engulfment
When an individual’s identity becomes dominated by a single role, often to the exclusion of other aspects of their self-concept.
91
Role strain
Refers to the stress an individual experiences due to the competing demands within the same social role.
92
Role adjustment
Refers to the process of an individual taking up a new social role.
93
Role conflict
Occurs when the separate roles that an individual occupies come into conflict.
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Gender socialization theories
Focus on how gendered attitudes and behaviors are taught to children in a society.
95
A qualitative research method
Make in-person observations in a cultural setting over an extended period of time.
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Secondary reinforcers
Stimuli that have acquired reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers.
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Stimulus generalization
Refers to a stimulus-controlled behavior occurring in response to stimuli that physically resemble the original controlling stimulus.
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Stimulus discrimination
Refers to a stimulus-controlled behavior occurring in response specifically to the original controlling stimulus without being elicited by stimuli that resemble the original stimulus.
99
Spontaneous recovery
The reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus.
100
Continuous reinforcement
Refers to reinforcing every response emitted by an individua
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Partial reinforcement
Occurs when only some of the responses emitted by an individual are reinforced.
102
Xenophobia
Refers to the fear and suspicion towards cultures perceived to be foreign
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Scapegoating
Refers to erroneously assigning blame to an identifiable source, often when the real cause is abstract
104
Ethnocentrism
Indicates that the values and practices of other cultures are evaluated by someone’s own cultural lenses and considered as inferior.
105
Prejudice
Based on preconceived negative judgements about certain individuals and groups due to their social background.
106
Division of labor
Refers to how different socioeconomic classes complete different economic tasks that are interdependent.
107
Craft apprenticeship
Indicates a lengthy training under an individual who is considered to have mastered the knowledge and the skills in a specific craft
108
Modern economic systems are structurally interdependent to each other because. . .
The complexity of economic activities in these systems cannot be sustained only with the social and material resources in a single economy.
109
Cortisol
A hormone that is specifically released during stressful situations and is a primary mediator of physiological changes associated with stress
110
Prolactin
Functions in the production of milk for lactation
111
Oxytocin
Functions to stimulate uterine contractions and milk ejection.
can also mood, this occurs by alleviating the effects of stress.
112
Semantic memory
Memory for facts and knowledge
Used for a categorization task
113
Episodic memory
Is long-term memory for personally experienced events.
114
Sensory memory
Is the system of memory which preserves information in its original sensory form, typically only for a fraction of a second.
115
Neural plasticity
Refers to the ability of the nervous system to modify itself, functionally and structurally, in response to experience or injury.
116
Neural transmission
Refers to communication between neurons.
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Lesion
Is an area of tissue that has been damaged via injury or illness.
118
Lesion
Is an area of tissue that has been damaged via injury or illness.
118
Maturation
Is the expected development associated with the gradual unfolding of one's genetic blueprint.
119
Normative social influence
Refers to individuals acting in ways that comply with the norms of their social groups.
120
Informational social influence
Occurs when individuals conform to others' behavior because they are in an ambiguous situation for which they do not have a script
121
Peripheral route persuasion
Utilizes the message characteristics that are not central to the information and arguments presented, such as emotional appeals.
122
Central route persuasion
Persuasion involves an active effort to change an attitude, and the central route utilizes informational content and the quality of arguments to do so.
123
Resilience
Refers to a person’s ability to recover readily from adversity, stress, or trauma.
124
Withdrawal
Is the physical and psychological effects which occur when an individual stops using a substance, which is not relevant to this example.
125
Agreeableness
People who score high on agreeableness are empathetic and helpful. A low agreeableness score is analogous to antagonism.
126
Openness
Related to characteristics such as curiosity, imagination, and unconventional attitudes.
127
Sensation
It is related to the degree to which individuals seek novelty and high stimulating activities
128
Conscientiousness
It is related to characteristics such as organization, punctuality, and dependability
129
Stimulants
Psychoactive substances which increase central nervous system activity.
130
Opioids
Function as depressants on the central nervous system
131
Hawthorne effect
Refers to the change in the participants’ behavior when they know their behavior is being observed, including via self-report
132
Demand characteristics
Occur if the research design provides cues to the participants regarding the study hypothesis and causes them to respond in a specific manner
133
Self-serving bias
Refers to the tendency to attribute one’s successes to internal, stable traits, and failures to situational factors
134
Confirmation bias
Refers to the tendency to put more weight on information that confirms one’s preexisting attitudes
135
Operationalization
Refers to how an abstract concept as a variable is observed through different measurements.
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Hypothetical definition.
A hypothesis requires the definition of the expected relationship between two or more variables.
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Conceptual definition.
Conceptualization refers to the stage in a study where the researcher describes the social dynamics related to a concept.
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Thematic definition.
A research theme refers to the larger area of research for a study. The question does not indicate the thematic area of the study.
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Discrimination
Is the unfair treatment of an individual or a community due to their social background.
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Stigma
Refers to negative stereotypes associated with a group in the society
Stigmas bestow disadvantages to those labeled with the stereotypes and are often associated with health, ability, personal background, and social background.
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Social segregation
Refers to the isolation of a community from other communities based on its social background, such as gender, race/ethnicity, and class
142
Stereotype
Indicates that an individual might be worried about conforming to a negatively stereotyped role due to their social background.
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According to psychodynamic theory, defense mechanisms are used to. . .
reduce anxiety stemming from unconscious conflicts.
144
Sociological conceptualization of race and ethnicity
Social Structures Edition
Race and ethnicity are institutionalized in social structures.
Neither race nor ethnicity is simply an individual characteristic. Instead, they are tied to social structures beyond an individual's control.
