Psychology Flashcards
(142 cards)
1
Q
Thomas Szasz
A
Antipsychiatry
2
Q
Beecher’s study
A
20 cases of research where subjects were not fully informed that they were research subjects e.g. Willowbrook State School study.
3
Q
Martell
A
Behavioural activation theory
4
Q
Bion
A
Group dynamics
5
Q
Bion’s “containing”
A
“A person’s ability to absorb and manage another person’s projected anxiety”
6
Q
Bion’s two types of groups
A
Working group, basic assumption group
7
Q
“Genovese Effect”
A
Bystander effect
8
Q
Catharsis hypothesis
A
Feelings of frustration and aggression can be discharged by 1. Aggressive pursuits (e.g. boxing) 2. Talking about feelings (e.g. venting)
9
Q
Stimulus generalisation
A
This is the extension of the conditioned response from the original conditioned stimulus to other similar stimuli
10
Q
Higher Order Conditioning
A
This occurs when a new stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus when it is paired with an established conditioned stimulus
11
Q
Cocktail party effect
A
The cocktail party effect is a feature of selective attention enabling a listener to isolate and focus upon a single conversation from among several simultaneous conversations competing for attention.
12
Q
Leon Festinger
A
Cognitive dissonance
13
Q
Classical conditioning - invented by
A
Ivan Pavlov
14
Q
Forward conditioning (Classical)
A
In forward conditioning the conditioned stimulus (e.g. ringing bell) precedes the unconditioned stimulus (e.g. dog seeing food).
15
Q
Two types of forward conditioning (Classical)
A
In delay conditioning the conditioned stimulus proceeds the unconditioned stimulus by a delay. The conditioned stimulus is still active when the unconditioned stimulus begins.
In contrast, trace conditioning involves the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus once the conditioned stimulus has finished.
16
Q
Two types of forward conditioning
A
In delay conditioning the conditioned stimulus proceeds the unconditioned stimulus by a delay. The conditioned stimulus is still active when the unconditioned stimulus begins.
In contrast, trace conditioning involves the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus once the conditioned stimulus has finished.
17
Q
Willowbrook school study
A
Children with learning difficulties innoculated with hepatitis.
18
Q
Stanford prison experiment
A
24 students assigned prisoner or guard, resulting in extreme behaviour warranting termination of the study after six days.
19
Q
Stanford prison experiemtn
A
24 students assigned prisoner or guard, resulting in extreme behaviour warranting termination of the study after six days.
20
Q
Tearooms study
A
“Humphreys” hung around “tearooms” to study the population claiming to be a “watchqueen”.
21
Q
Milgrams’ study
A
People asked to administer fake shocks.
22
Q
Declaration of Geneva
A
Hippocratic Oath (after Nazi germany)
23
Q
Declaration of Helsinki
A
Rights of research participants
24
Q
Delcaration of Tokyo
A
Doctors should refuse to participate in torture of prisoners
25
Declaration of Malta
Hunger strikes
26
Declaration of Lisbon
Rights of patients
27
Declaration of Ottawa
Child health
28
Defense mechanisms in phobias
Repression, displacement
29
Defense mechanisms in OCD
Isolation, undoing, reaction formation
30
Defense mechanisms in BPD
Projection, splitting
31
Defense mechanisms in NPD
Projection, splitting
32
Defense mechanisms in agoraphobia
Displacement
33
Attribution theory - baises (6)
Fundamental attribution error - overemphasise dispositional factors when assessing other people's behaviour
Actor-observer bias - overemphasise dispositional factors for others, situational factors for self
Correspondence bias - the tendency to draw inferences about a person's unique and enduring dispositions from behaviors that can be entirely explained by the situations in which they occur
Self-serving bias - attribute success to internal factors, failures to external factors
Hostile attribution bias - interpret others' behaviours as hostile
False consensus effect
34
Extinction (Classical)
If a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus then the conditioned response will disappear
35
Simultaneous conditioning (Classical)
In this form of conditioning, the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus are presented at the same time
36
Backward conditioning (Classical)
Here, the conditioned stimulus follows the unconditioned stimulus
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Temporal conditioning (Classical)
Here the unconditioned stimulus is paired to time. The unconditioned stimulus is presented at regular intervals (for example, every 20 minutes). Eventually the unconditioned response will occur shortly prior to the unconditioned stimulus
38
Aversive conditioning (Classical)
A technique where an unpleasant stimulus is paired with an unwanted behaviour (such as nail-biting, smoking) in order to create an aversion to it
39
Counter conditioning (Classical)
Teaching a different task or behaviour than the one that was previously occurring in a situation. For example, a dog lunges at the window when the postman walks by. The new task will be sitting quietly
40
Incubation (Classical)
This occurs in fear responses. When a person is exposed to a stimulus which causes fear (for example being bitten by a dog), the fear response can increase over time due to brief exposures to the conditioned stimulus (for example to sight of dogs). This explains how fears can grow
41
Incubation
This occurs in fear responses. When a person is exposed to a stimulus which causes fear (for example being bitten by a dog), the fear response can increase over time due to brief exposures to the conditioned stimulus (for example to sight of dogs). This explains how fears can grow
42
Depression (Brown and Harris) vulnerability factors for women
* Three or more children under the age of 14 at home
* Lack of an intimate relationship with a husband or boyfriend
* Lack of employment outside of the home
* Loss of a mother before the age of 11 years
43
Double agentry
Double agentry occurs when a psychiatrist has a conflict of interests that interferes with their ability to act solely in the best interests of the patient. In fact psychiatrists often find themselves acting in the interests of several parties (e.g. patient, family, society, hospital commissioners etc) and this is referred to as multiagency.
44
James-Lange
Bodily sensations cause emotion
45
Cannon-Bard
Stimulus for emotion arises simultaneously in the body and the mind
46
Singer-Schachter
Stimulus for emotion arises via a combination of physical sensations and the mind appraisal of them.
47
Lazarus theory
Stimulus for emotion arises from the mind.
48
"Stigma" - coined by
Erving Goffman
49
Utilitarianism
Founded on the work of Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873).
The greatest good for the greatest number. (Consequentialist).
50
Felicific calculus
Bentham thought that humans were governed by two factors: ‘pleasure and pain’, thought it was possible to classify how good an action is by measuring how much pleasure or pain was brought about by that action. He called this process ‘felicific calculus’.
51
Deontologicalism
Deontology covers those theories that emphasize moral duties and rules, rather than consequences (from the Greek deon , meaning ‘duty’). A good example is the Ten Commandments.
52
Deontology - main dude
Kant
53
Categorical imperative
'act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law'
54
Virtue based ethics
Certain personal characteristics are recognized as virtues and others as vices. Honesty, generosity, compassion, courage, justice, fidelity, and veracity are virtues that characterize an ethical person, while deception, selfishness, cruelty, infidelity, and disingenuousness are some of the many characteristics that denote a vicious person.
55
Flashbulb memory
Flashbulb memories are detailed recollections of the context in which people first heard about an important event.
56
Freud structural theory and principles
Id - pleasure principle (primary process thinking)
Ego - reality principle (home to defense mechanisms, 3x conscious levels)
Superego - conscience
57
Founder of structuralism
Willhelm Wundt
58
Gestalt psychologists x3
Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfkang Kohler
59
Phi phenomenon
Max Wertheimer noted that rapid sequences of perceptual events, such as rows of flashing lights, create the illusion of motion even when there is none. This is known as the phi phenomenon.
60
Pragnanz (Gestalt law)
This is the central law that states that 'every stimulus pattern is seen in such a way that the resulting structure is as simple as possible'.
61
Similarity (Gestalt law)
Items that are similar tend to be grouped together.
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Proximity (Gestalt law)
Things that are near each other seem to be grouped together.
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Continuity (Gestalt law)
Points that are connected by straight or curving lines are seen in a way that follows the smoothest path.
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Closure (Gestalt law)
Things are grouped together if they seem to complete a picture. When presented with a picture we tend to fill in the gaps to turn something into a meaningful image.
65
Goldstein Scheerer Object Sort Test
The Goldstein-Scheerer Object Sorting test is used to assess abstract thinking and how well concepts are formed. The patient is required to sort objects by colour or material, copy block patterns with coloured cubes. The tests are mainly used to diagnose neurological problems.
66
Grief - Bowlby
1. Shock-numbness (disbelief) - few days
2. Yearning-searching (preoccupation) - few weeks
3. Disorganisation-despair (several months)
4. Reorganisation/ resolution (years)
67
Grief - Kubler-Ross
1. Denial-dissociation-isolation
2. Anger
3. Bargaining
4. Depression
5. Acceptance
68
"Abnormal grief" - types
Inhibited - absence of any grief symptoms
Delayed - avoidance of painful symptoms for 2 weeks following loss
Chronic - continued significant symptoms after 6 months
69
Features useful for distinguishing normal grief from major depression include (6)
- Generalised guilt (rather than guilt specifically related to actions taken around the time of death).
- Thoughts of death (except in relation to the deceased).
- Feeling worthless.
- Psychomotor retardation.
- Prolonged functional impairment, duration >6/12.
- Hallucinations (except in relation to the deceased).
70
Yalom - principles of group psychotherapy
Universality (removes group members sense of isolation)
• Altruism (the experience of helping anther group member)
• Instillation of hope (seeing other members who have progressed in therapy)
• Imparting information (learning from others)
• Corrective recapitulation of the primary family experience (therapists analysis of transference)
• Development of socialising techniques (practicing social skills)
• Imitative behaviour (using other members as models)
• Cohesiveness (feeling part of the group)
• Existential factors (facing the basic issues of life)
• Catharsis (relief from expressing emotion)
• Interpersonal learning (using feedback from other members)
• Self understanding (insight)
71
Groupthink
Irving Janis in 1972. The desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an incorrect or deviant decision-making outcome.
Group members try to minimise conflict and reach a consensus decision without critical evaluation of alternative ideas or viewpoints.
Several conditions must take place for groupthink to occur . The group must be isolated from outside influences. Group loyalty prevents individuals from raising controversial issues of alternative solutions. There is a loss of individual creativity and independent thinking. The group experiences the 'illusion of invulnerability,' an inflated certainty that the right decision has been made. Typically the group is under a high level of pressure to make a decision, and it lacks an impartial leader. These factors can lead a group to make a catastrophically bad decision.
Symptoms of groupthink include:
* Illusion of invulnerability
* Belief in inherent morality of the group
* Collective rationalisation
* Stereotypes of 'out-groups'
* Self-censorship
* Illusion of unanimity - assuming that people who remain silent agree with the majority view
* Direct pressure on dissenters
* Self-appointed mind guards - protecting the group from outside info that challenges the groups view of itself
72
Groupshift
Groupshift is the phenomenon in which the initial positions of individual members of a group are exaggerated toward a more extreme position. For example, when people are in groups, they assess risk differently from when they are alone. In the group, they are likely to make riskier decisions as the shared risk makes the individual risk seem to be less.
73
Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale
The Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale consists of reading a story aloud to participants, who are then asked to recall as much as they can remember. Subsequently, participants are probed with 20 questions pertaining to the story, 15 of which are misleading. When the 20 questions have been answered, the participants are clearly and firmly given a negative feedback on their performance. Specifically, they are told that they have made a number of errors and that it is therefore necessary to repeat the questions to obtain more accurate answers. On the basis of participants answers to the misleading items, a total suggestibility score can be calculated.
74
Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale
The Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale consists of reading a story aloud to participants, who are then asked to recall as much as they can remember. Subsequently, participants are probed with 20 questions pertaining to the story, 15 of which are misleading. When the 20 questions have been answered, the participants are clearly and firmly given a negative feedback on their performance. Specifically, they are told that they have made a number of errors and that it is therefore necessary to repeat the questions to obtain more accurate answers. On the basis of participants answers to the misleading items, a total suggestibility score can be calculated.
75
Halo effect
The halo effect is a cognitive bias whereby the perception of one characteristic of a person or object is influenced by the perception of another. An example would be judging a good looking person as more intelligent.
76
Hawthorne effect
The Hawthorne effect is a form of observer bias. It refers to the situation where someone changes their behaviour if they believe they are being observed.
77
Cognitive heuristics
"Short-cuts" to reduce the complexity of making judgements
78
Representativeness (heuristics)
Representativeness refers to making an uncertainty judgment on the basis of 'the degree to which it is (i) similar in essential properties to its parent population and (ii) reflects the salient features of the process by which it is generated.
For example if you were told that Steve is a very shy and withdrawn but helpful man with little interest in people you may assume he is a librarian rather than say for instance a doctor. This may be true most of the time.
79
Availability (heuristics)
Availability is used to estimate 'frequency or probability by the ease with which instances or associations come to mind.
For example, exposure to media about violent crime will tend to inflate our estimate of the overall frequency of violent crime.
80
Anchoring-and-adjustment (heuristics)
Anchoring-and-adjustment involves 'starting from an initial value that is adjusted to yield the final answer.
For example in one study a mock jury was told to contemplate the harshest verdict first. The final verdict was found to be relatively harsh.
81
Framing (heuristics)
Framing influences how we make descision. Choices are often made depending on how information is presented (framed) rather than for the correct reason.
82
Holmes Rahe stress scale (social readjustment rating scale)
```
Life changing units:
100 = Death of spouse
73 = Divorce
65 = Marital separation
63 = Jail term
63 = Death of close family member
53 = Personal illness
50 = Marriage
47 = Being fired from work
45 = Marital reconciliation
45 = Retirement
```
83
Incentive salience
Incentive salience is a process through which the brain comes to desire certain things such as drugs. This process is mediated by mesolimbic dopamine systems. This is a separate process to that of liking something. As such desire and pleasure are separate processes with dopamine regulating the former and not the latter.
It is now agreed that a person can want something which they don't like (this was not always accepted and the two were considered to be proportionate to one another).
There is a subtle but important difference between liking and wanting. 'Liking' refers only to our actual reactions of pleasure, both conscious and unconscious. When we speak of 'wanting', we're consciously predicting our future likelihood of seeking out an experience (Berridge 2009).
Desire is amplified by brain states that heighten dopamine reactivity, such as stress, emotional excitement, relevant appetites or intoxication. So called 'state-dependent amplification of incentive salience' is one reason why many addicts find it so hard to stop at ‘just one hit’.
Grief has been hypothesized to be underpinned by a very similar process as drug addiction (Kakarala, 2020). This is referred to as the 'incentive salience theory of grief'.
84
Intervention-causation fallacy
The intervention-causation fallacy refers to the erroneous assumption that a cure proves a cause. Just because antidepressants alleviate symptoms of depression that does not mean we have proven that depression has a biological cause.
85
Paranoid-schizoid position (Klein)
The paranoid-schizoid position represents a state of fragmentation where the mind divides the world into good and bad. It is charcterised by the defence mechanism known as 'splitting'.
86
Depressive position (Klein)
The depressive position follows the paranoid-schizoid position and is characterised by the ability to accept something can be both good and bad (ambivalence).
87
Four components of language
Semantics
Syntax
Pragmatics
Phonology
88
Hierarchy of needs (Maslow)
1. Physiological
2. Safety
3. Love
4. Esteem
5. Self-actualisation
89
Maslow's different types of needs
D-needs: Bottom 4 levels.
| B-needs: Self-actualisation.
90
MAslow's motivational model
```
Divided self-actualisation into:
Cognitive needs
Aesthetic needs
Self-actualisation
Transendence
```
91
Types of sensory memory
Haptic (touch)
Echoic (auditory)
Iconic (sight)
92
Components of short-term (working) memory
Central executive - focuses and divides attention
Visuospatial sketchpad
Phonological loop - holds verbal and auditory info
Episodic buffer - integrates information
93
Types of long-term memory
Declarative/ explicit:
Episodic (personal experience)
Semantic (general knowledge)
```
Non-delcarative/ implicit:
Procedural
Associative (e.g. conditioning)
Non-associative (sensitisation and habituation)
Priming
```
94
Memory processes x3
Encoding, storage, retrieval
95
Memory failure - transience
The decreasing accessibility of memory over time.
96
Memory failure - absent mindedness
Lapses of attention and forgetting to do things. The memory is formed to some extent but there is an issue in accessing the memory (for example remembering you left £10 in your pocket, but only once it is already in the washing machine).
97
Memory failure - blocking
Temporary inaccessibility of stored information, such as tip-of-the-tongue syndrome.
98
Memory failure - suggestibility
Incorporation of misinformation into memory due to leading questions, deception and other causes.
99
Memory failure - bias
Retrospective distortions produced by current knowledge and beliefs.
100
Memory failure - misattribution
Misattribution - attribution of memories to incorrect sources or believing that you have seen or heard something you haven't. Deja Vu and cryptamnesia are examples of this.
101
Memory failure - misattribution
Misattribution - attribution of memories to incorrect sources or believing that you have seen or heard something you haven't. Deja Vu and cryptamnesia are examples of this.
102
Assimilation (Berry)
When individuals give up home culture and embrace the dominant culture
103
Integration (Berry)
Maintaining the home culture but also embracing the dominant culture
104
Separation (Berry)
Maintaining home culture and being isolated from the dominant culture
105
Marginalisation (Berry)
Giving up the home culture and failing to relate properly to the dominant culture
106
'Laissez-faire' (multiculturalism)
'Laissez-faire' is a term used to describe multiculturalism that takes place without planning (e.g. the Chinatowns that exist in most cities).
107
Forms of assimilation
The first, total, involves the obliteration of the non-dominant culture, the second, 'melting pot' refers to a less extreme version where a new form of the dominant culture emerges.
108
Nuremberg Code
The Nuremburg code resulted from the trial of the German physicians accused of participating in war crimes and crimes against humanity (1946). Among the charges were that German physicians conducted medical experiments on thousands of concentration camp prisoners without their consent.
The Nuremberg Code was the first international document which advocated voluntary participation and informed consent in medical experimentation.
109
Operant conditioning - invented by
B F Skinner
110
Reinforment (operant)
A stimulus/ event that increases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated is called a reinforcer. Reinforcement can be either positive or negative. In both positive and negative reinforcement the behaviour is strengthened. Positive reinforcement occurs when a behaviour is strengthened by adding a rewarding stimulus e.g. More likely to come to work if you get paid. Negative reinforcement occurs when a behaviour is strengthened by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus e.g. More likely to put the bins out to put an end to your partner nagging you.
111
Punishment (operant)
A stimulus that decreases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated is called a punisher. Again there are positive and negative punishers. Positive punishment occurs when a behaviour is reduced in frequency by adding an unpleasant stimulus. An example of positive punishment is if a dog growls at someone who tries to stroke them (an unpleasant stimulus), they will be less inclined to try to stroke them again (reduction in behavioural frequency). An example of negative punishment is a parent taking a child's toys of them (removal of a pleasant stimulus) for throwing their food against the wall, the child should be less inclined to repeat the behaviour.
112
Primary reinforcers (operant)
Primary reinforcers are instinctual desires such as food, water, social approval and sex (be careful with social approval as it is considered by some to be a secondary reinforcer).
Secondary reinforcers (aka conditioned reinforcers) are not innately appreciated and people have to learn to like them through classical conditioning or other methods. Secondary reinforcers include things such as money.
113
Secondary reinforcers (operant)
Secondary reinforcers (aka conditioned reinforcers) are not innately appreciated and people have to learn to like them through classical conditioning or other methods. Secondary reinforcers include things such as money.
114
Shaping (operant)
Sometimes an exact behaviour cannot be performed and so cannot be rewarded. In this instance it is helpful to reward successive, increasingly accurate approximations to the behaviour. This is called shaping.
115
Chaining (operant)
Chaining involves breaking a complex task into smaller more manageable sections.
116
Escape conditioning (operant and classical)
Escape conditioning refers to a situation whereby an aversive situation is removed after a response. It is a form of negative reinforcement. For example, imagine a rat stood on a raised platform in a pool of water. When an electrical current is applied to the platform the rat will jump into the water to stop the unpleasant sensation of the electric shock (the shock is removed following the response).
When a person learns to respond to a signal in a way that avoids an aversive stimulus before it arrives this is avoidance conditioning. For example, imagine that in the above example, a buzzer sounded just before the electric shock was applied. Eventually the rats would learn to jump off the platform at the sound of the buzzer rather than wait for the shock.
117
Habituation (operant)
Habituation refers to the phenomenon whereby a there is a decrease in response to a stimulus over time (overtime you pay less attention to repeated sounds in your environment). If the stimulus is removed for a period of time and then reintroduced then the response will reappear at full strength. This is referred to as spontaneous recovery.
118
Covert sensitisation (operant)
This is a technique used whereby someone learns to use mental imagery (hence it's covert) to associate a behaviour with a negative consequence.
For example, a person may be encouraged to use imagery to link smoking a cigarette with the development of lung cancer.
119
Parapraxis
A parapraxis is also known as a 'slip of the tongue'. Freud believed that these revealed important information about the repressed content of the unconscious mind.
120
Power theory (French and Raven) - types
1. Legitimate power
2. Referent power (charisma)
3. Expert power
4. Reward power
5. Coercive power
121
Counterpower
The power of the oppressed to counterbalance the elite
122
Practice effect
The practice effect refers to the influence that the past experience of taking a test has on taking that same test again. It usually results in higher than normal score, and is most pronounced when the interval between the two tests is short.
123
Premack's principle
Premack's principle is the observation that preferred behaviors can be used to reinforce unpreferred behaviors.
Formally stated it is as follows: high-probability behaviors (those performed frequently under conditions of free choice) can be used to reinforce low-probability behaviors.
For example, telling a child that if they want pudding they must finish all their main. Or that they can go out and play once they have finished their homework.
124
Primary emotions (Ekman)
```
Happiness
Sadness
Fear
Disgust
Anger
Surprise
```
125
Ribot's Law
Ribot's Law of retrograde amnesia states that 'recent memories are more likely to be lost than the more remote memories'.
126
Sally Anne test
The theory of mind idea was a conclusion drawn from the Sally-Anne test, an experiment performed by Simon Baron-Cohen. The study included several groups of children, some of whom were autistic children. The researchers performed a skit that went like this:
Sally puts a marble in a basket and leaves the room. While she is gone, Anne removes the marble from the basket and puts it in a box. Sally comes back into the room, and the child is asked, 'Where will Sally look for her marble?'
The response of most of the autistic children was to point to or name the box, while most of the non-autistic children identified the basket. The researchers concluded that the autistic children who chose the box were incapable of understanding that Sally did not know the marble was in the box.
127
Selective attention models
1. Broadbent filter - "early selection model"
2. Treisman's attenuation - "intermediate selection model" - with a leaky filter
3. Deustch and deutsch - "late stage model" - input is analysed for meaning before filtration.
128
"Illness behaviour" - term coined by
Mechanic and Volkart
129
"Sick role" - coined by
Talcott Parsons
130
Sleep stages - time spent and waves
1. 5% theta
2. 45% k complexes and sleep spindles
3. 12% <50% delta (REM)
4. 12% >50% delta (REM)
131
REM characteristics
- Autonomic instability (variability in heart rate, respiratory rate, and BP)
- Loss of muscle tone
- Dreaming
- Rapid eye movements
- Penile erection
- Deafness
132
Social capital
'features of social life - networks, norms, and trust - that enable participants to act together more effectively to pursue shared objectives' (Putnam, 1996).
133
Social loafing
Social loafing is the phenomenon whereby people exert less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than when they work alone.
134
Lower social status corresponds more highly with (4)
SZP
PD
Alcohol
MDD
135
Types of stigma
1. Discredited stigma (assumes people know about their difference)
2. Discreditable stigma (assumes people do not know about their difference)
3. Felt stigma (Internal shame and expectation of discrimination)
4. Enacted stigma (unfair treatment by others)
5. Courtesy stigma (relative of stigmatised person)
136
Link and Phelan stigma model
The most popular model of stigma comes from the work of Link and Phelan and has four aspects to it:-
* Labelling - personal characteristics that mark them as different
* Stereotyping - linking labelled characteristics to undesirable characteristics
* Separating - separating the labelled group and normal people by viewing them as very different
* Status loss and discrimination - the devaluing, rejecting, and excluding of the labelled group
137
Tarasoff
The case of Tarasoff was heard by the Supreme Court of California. It held that mental health professionals have a duty to protect individuals who are being threatened with bodily harm by a patient. It therefore concerns the issue of confidentiality.
138
Temperament (Thomas and chess)
* Easy child (40%). These obtained high scores on regularity (degree to which they fall into a schedule), approachability, adaptability, mild intensity of reactivity, and predominance of positive mood.
* Difficult child (10%). These children were the polar opposite of easy children.
* Slow to warm up child (15%). These children are somewhere in the middle. They often have moderately negative reactions to new things but warm to the idea eventually.
Goodness of fit is simply defined as the compatibility between environment and a child’s temperament.
139
Theories of aggression
1. Psychodynamic (Freud) - thanatos vs. eros
2. Sociobiological/ drive (Lorenz) - survival, evolution
3. Social learning (Bandura) - Bobo doll
4. Cognitive (Berkowitz) - aggressive impulses linked with aversive events in memory
5. General aggression (Anderson and Bushman) - comprehensive model
140
Thorndike's Law of effect
Thorndike's law of effect states that the tendency of an action to occur depends on the effect it has on the environment.
Basically this means that actions that have pleasurable responses are strengthened, whereas actions which lead to discomfort are less likely to recur.
141
Thurstone - primary abilities
Louis Leon Thurstone argued that intelligence could not be measured by a single factor. He further agued that intelligence arises from seven independent factors he called the primary abilities:-
* Word fluency
* Verbal comprehension
* Spatial visualization
* Number facility
* Associative memory
* Reasoning
* Perceptual speed
142
Trait theory (Allport)
Cardinal traits, central traits, secondary traits
