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Psych 1200 > Psychology Chapter 2 > Flashcards

Psychology Chapter 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

appeal to authority

A

the belief in an “expert’s” claim even when no supporting data or scientific evidence is present

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2
Q

convenience samples

A

samples of individuals who are the most readily available

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3
Q

operational definitions

A

statements that describe the procedures (or operations) and specific measures that are used to record observations
By carefully defining psychological terms such as “intelligence” or “happiness,” everyone can understand exactly how these variables are being objectively measured.

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4
Q

peer review

A

a process in which papers submitted for publication in scholarly journals are read and critiqued by experts in the specific field of study

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5
Q

Hawthorne effect

A

behaviour change that occurs as a result of being observed

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6
Q

replication

A

the process of repeating a study and finding a similar outcome each time

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7
Q

single-blind study

A

a study in which participants do not know the true purpose of the study, or else do not know which type of treatment they are receiving (for example, a placebo or a drug)

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8
Q

generalizability

A

the degree to which one set of results can be applied to other situations, individuals, or events

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9
Q

social desirability (or socially desirable responding)

A

research participants respond in ways that increase the chances that they will be viewed favourably

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10
Q

sample

A

a select group of population members

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11
Q

objective measurements

A

the measure of an entity or behaviour that, within an allowed margin of error, is consistent across instruments and observers
ex- behaviour

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12
Q

random sample

A

a sampling technique in which every individual of a population has an equal chance of being included

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13
Q

ecological validity

A

the results of a laboratory study can be applied to or repeated in the natural environment

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14
Q

validity

A

the degree to which an instrument or procedure actually measures what it claims to measure

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15
Q

placebo effect

A

a measurable and experienced improvement in health or behaviour that cannot be attributable to a medication or treatment
the participants believe the pill or liquid they are consuming is actually a drug. If they knew that they were receiving a placebo instead of a pain medication, they would not experience any pain relief.

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16
Q

appeal to common sense

A

a claim that appears to be sound, but lacks supporting scientific evidence

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17
Q

demand characteristics

A

inadvertent cues given off by the experimenter or the experimental context that provide information about how participants are expected to behave

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18
Q

population

A

the group that researchers want to generalize about

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19
Q

falsifiable

A

the hypothesis is precise enough that it could be proven false

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20
Q

anecdotal evidence

A

an individual’s story or testimony about an observation or event that is used to make a claim as evidence

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21
Q

reliability

A

consistent and stable answers across multiple observations and points in time

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22
Q

double-blind study

A

a study in which neither the participant nor the experimenter knows the exact treatment for any individual

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23
Q

variable

A

the object, concept, or event being measured

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24
Q

dependent variable

A

the observation or measurement that is recorded during the experiment and subsequently compared across all groups

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25
qualitative research
examining an issue or behaviour without performing numerical measurements of the variables
26
self-reporting
a method in which responses are provided directly by the people who are being studied, typically through face-to-face interviews, phone surveys, paper and pencil tests, and web-based questionnaires
27
research design
a set of methods that allows a hypothesis to be tested
28
experimental group
the group in the experiment that receives a treatment or the stimuli targeting a specific behaviour
29
between-subjects design
an experimental design in which we compare the performance of participants who are in different groups
30
case study
an in-depth report about the details of a specific case
31
illusory correlations
relationships that really exist only in the mind, rather than in reality
32
correlational research
involves measuring the degree of association between two or more variables
33
independent variable
the variable that the experimenter manipulates to distinguish between two or more groups
34
quantitative research
examining an issue or behaviour by using numerical measurements and/or statistics
35
control group
the group that does not receive the treatment or stimuli targeting a specific behaviour; this group therefore serves as a baseline to which the experimental group is compared
36
quasi-experimental research
a research technique in which the two or more groups that are compared are selected based on predetermined characteristics, rather than random assignment
37
confounding variable
a variable outside of the researcher’s control that might affect or provide an alternative explanation for the results
38
random assignment
a technique for dividing samples into two or more groups in which participants are equally likely to be placed in any condition of the experiment
39
within-subjects design
an experimental design in which the same participants respond to all types of stimuli or experience all experimental conditions
40
naturalistic observation
observations that unobtrusively observe and record behaviour as it occurs in the subject’s natural environment
41
third variable problem
the possibility that a third, unmeasured variable is actually responsible for a well-established correlation between two variables
42
deception
misleading or only partially informing participants of the true topic or hypothesis under investigation
43
informed consent
a potential volunteer must be informed (know the purpose, tasks, and risks involved in the study) and give consent (agree to participate based on the information provided) without pressure
44
research ethics board (REB)
a committee of researchers and officials at an institution charged with the protection of research participants
45
debriefing
when researchers explain the true nature of the study, and especially the nature of and reason for any deception
46
hypothesis test
a statistical method of evaluating whether differences among groups are meaningful, or could have been arrived at by chance alone
47
frequency
the number of observations that fall within a certain category or range of scores
48
experimental hypothesis
assumes that any differences are due to a variable controlled by the experimenter
49
normal distribution
a symmetrical distribution with values clustered around a central, mean value
50
central tendency
a measure of the central point of a distribution
51
descriptive statistics
a set of techniques used to organize, summarize, and interpret data
52
negatively skewed distribution
a distribution in which the curve has an extended tail to the left of the cluster
53
mean
the arithmetic average of a set of numbers
54
variability
the degree to which scores are dispersed in a distribution
55
median
the 50th percentile—the point on the horizontal axis at which 50% of all observations are lower, and 50% of all observations are higher
56
mode
the category with the highest frequency (that is, the category with the most observations)
57
standard deviation
a measure of variability around the mean
58
null hypothesis
assumes that any differences between groups (or conditions) are due to chance
59
positively skewed distribution
a distribution in which the long tail is on the right of the cluster
60
statistical significance
the means of the groups are farther apart than you would expect them to be by random chance alone
61
What are the Five Characteristics of Quality Scientific Research?
1. It is based on measurements that are objective, valid, and reliable. 2. It can be generalized. 3. It uses techniques that reduce bias. 4. It is made public. 5. It can be replicated.
62
What are 2 essential components of scientific research?
Reliability and validity
63
What is one way to increase the possibility that research results will generalize?
study a large group of participants- ideally a population but sample can be used and then generalize those results to everyone in population
64
researcher bias
various types of bias can be unintentionally introduced by the researchers
65
subject biases or participant biases
It is also possible for the participants, including animals, to introduce their own bias this bias will involve a participant trying to figure out what the experimenters are testing or trying to predict the responses that the researchers are hoping to find.
66
Anonymity
individual’s responses are recorded without any name or other personal information that could link a particular individual to specific results
67
What are the best techniques for reducing subject bias?
to provide anonymity and confidentiality to the volunteers
68
Anonymity
individual’s responses are recorded without any name or other personal information that could link a particular individual to specific results
69
Confidentiality
the results will be seen only by the researcher
70
What kind of procedures should experiments involving drugs use?
blind procedures
71
What is Psychology’s primary mode of communication?
through academic journals
72
publication bias
which successful and novel results are published and studies that showed no effects are not
73
What are Five Characteristics of Poor Research?
It produces untestable hypotheses. It relies on anecdotes and personal experiences. It includes a biased selection of data. It makes appeals to authority rather than facts. It makes appeals to common sense
74
Research designs influence how investigators
1) organize the stimuli used to test the hypothesis, (2) make observations and measurements, (3) evaluate the results.
75
Data.
When scientists collect observations about the variables of interest, the information they record is called data.
76
How do researchers usually gather data?
using one or more of the following designs: case studies, naturalistic observation, and surveys and questionnaires.
77
Negative Correlation
when increase in one variable causes decrease in the other ex- temperature goes down, sweater wearing goes up When the dots on a scatterplot show a pattern that is slanted downward to the right,
78
Positive Correlation:
when increase in one variable causes increase in the other | ex- income and educational level
79
Zero Correlation
when scatterplot is random with no patterns, this means correlation between two variables is zero
80
A correlation coefficient of zero
there is no relationship between the two variables
81
A coefficient of +1.0
means that there is a very strong positive correlation between the variables
82
A coefficient of −1.0
means that there is a very strong negative correlation between the variables
83
What are 2 key differences between correlational research and experiments?
the random assignment of the participants and the researcher’s experimental control over the variables being studied.
84
converging operations
when a theory’s predictions hold up to dozens of tests using a variety of designs
85
The REBs are intended to protect individuals in two main ways:
1) The committee weighs potential risks to the volunteers against the possible benefits of the research, 2) it requires that volunteers agree to participate in the research (i.e., they give informed consent).
86
What should volunteers at least be told?
the topic of the study the nature of any stimuli to which they will be exposed (e.g., images, sounds, smells) the nature of any tasks they will complete (e.g., tests, puzzles) the approximate duration of the study any potential physical, psychological, or social risks involved the steps that the researchers have taken to minimize those risks
87
observe unconscious mimicry
the tendency for people to take on the gestures, postures, or other physical mannerisms of others during a conversation.
88
descriptive statistics
a set of techniques used to organize, summarize, and interpret data
89
three types of stats?
Frequency central tendency variability
90
normal distribution
(sometimes called the bell curve), a symmetrical distribution with values clustered around a central, mean value.
91
subjective
observations that are shaped by prior beliefs, expectations, experiences, and even mood.
92
objective
suggests that everyone should be able to agree on certain facts given the same tools, the same methods, and the same context.
93
"Mozart effect"
Listening to classical music appears to have only a small, short-lasting effect on spatial reasoning.
94
descriptive research
is to simply describe the thing being studied. In psychology, this is usually accomplished by using case studies, naturalistic observation, or surveys and questionnaires.
95
experimental design
are used for determining cause-and-effect relationships.

Psych 1200 (6 decks)

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