psychopatholgy

Question 1

what is statistical infrequency? “it occurs…”

Answer 1

it occurs when an individual has a less common characteristic, eg being more depressed or less intelligent than most of the population

Question 2

explain what’s meant by the term ‘deviation from social norms’
“it refers to/ it concerns..”

Answer 2

it refers to/ it concerns behaviour that is different from the accepted standards of behaviour in a community or society

Question 3

what is meant by the ‘failure to function adequately’? “it occurs “

Answer 3

it occurs when someone is unable to cope with ordinary demands of day-to-day living

Question 4

what’s meant by a ‘deviation from ideal health’
“ it occurs when”

Answer 4

it occurs when someone doesn’t meet a set of criteria for good mental health

Question 5

give and explain an example of statistical infrequency

Answer 5

-IQ and intellectual disability disorder
-the avg IQ is set at 100. in a normal distribution (the range/avg of the IQ scores of the majority of ppl), most people (68%) have and IQ in the range of 85-115. only 2% have a score below 70. those individuals scoring below 70 are very ‘abnormal’ and are likely to receive a diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder

Question 6

give and explain an example of a deviation from social norms

Answer 6

-antisocial personality disorder
-ppl with this disorder are impulsive, aggressive and irresponsible.

Question 7

what’s a strength of the STATISTICAL INFREQUENCY definition ?

Answer 7

P: it’s useful
E: bc it’s used in clinical practice both as a part of formal diagnosis and as way to assess the severity of an individual’s symptoms. eg a diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder requires an IQ of below 70.
E: shows tht the value of the statistical infrequency criterion is useful in diagnosing and assessing others

Question 8

what’s a limitation of the STATISTICAL INFREQUENCY definition ?

Answer 8

P: infrequent characteristics can be positive as well as negative
E: although there are ppl with low IQs, there are also ppl with extremely high IQs as well. Yet, those with very high IQs wouldn’t and shouldn’t be considered as abnormal.
E: means that although it can be helpful in diagnostic and assessment procedures, it’s never sufficient as the sole basis for defining abnormality

Question 9

what’s a strength of the deviation of social norms definition for abnormality?

Answer 9

P: its usefulness in clinical practice.

E: For example, Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) is diagnosed based on behaviors like aggression and deceitfulness, which deviate from social norms.

E: This shows its value in psychiatry, as it helps identify and diagnose mental disorders effectively.

Question 10

what’s a limitation of deviation of social norms definition for abnormality?

Answer 10

P: mental health diagnoses based on this definition, as a mechanism for social control.
E: behaviours can be unfairly labelled as abnormal based on societal expectations rather than actual harm. eg homosexuality was once seen as a disorder solely for deviating from norms
E: shows how the definition can reinforce biases rather than objectively identify mental illnesses.

Question 11

what’s a strength of the failure to function definition for abnormality?

Answer 11

P: it takes into account patients’ perspective
E: which means that the final diagnosis will involve the patient’s self-reported symptoms and the psychiatrist’s objective opinion
E: this leads 2 more accurate diagnoses of mental health disorders bc such diagnoses aren’t constrained by statistical limits like w/ statistical infrequency.

Question 12

which two ppl proposed the failure to function definition of abnormality?
a) Sewell
b) Jahoda
c) Rosenhan and Seligman

Answer 12

c) Rosenhan and Seligman

Question 13

define what a ‘phobia’ is

Answer 13

an irrational fear of an object or situation

Question 14

define what are the three behavioural characteristics of phobias

Answer 14

panic, avoidance and endurance

Question 15

what behaviours indicate that someone is panicking due to a phobia (3 ways) and how does it slightly differ in kids (3 ways)?

Answer 15

-crying, screaming or running away.
-children may react by freezing, clinging or having a tantrum

Question 16

why are phobias classified as anxiety disorders?

Answer 16

bc they involve an emotional response of anxiety

Question 17

what’s anxiety?

Answer 17

an unpleasant state of high arousal

Question 18

what’s the difference between anxiety and fear in the context of phobias?

Answer 18

Anxiety is a long-term, unpleasant state of high arousal, whereas fear is an intense, immediate response to encountering a phobic stimulus.

Question 19

how’s the emotional response to a phobic stimulus considered unreasonable?

Answer 19

The anxiety or fear is disproportionate to any actual threat posed. For example, a person with arachnophobia may panic over a tiny, harmless spider.

Question 20

How do people with phobias process information differently?

Answer 20

They focus on phobic stimuli in a way that is not typical for other objects or situations.

Question 21

What is selective attention in phobias?

Answer 21

It is when a person finds it difficult to look away from the phobic stimulus, even if their fear is irrational.

Question 22

Give an example of selective attention in a phobia. think- beards

Answer 22

A person with pogonophobia (fear of beards) may struggle to concentrate if someone with a beard is in the room.

Question 23

What are irrational beliefs in relation to phobias?

Answer 23

These are unfounded, unrealistic thoughts about phobic stimuli. ie that can’t easily be explained and doesn’t have any basis in reality.

Question 25

how do irrational beliefs impact someone with social phobias?

Answer 25

it increases the pressure on them to perform well in social situations

Question 26

What are cognitive distortions in phobias?

Answer 26

A person with a phobia may have inaccurate perceptions of the phobic stimulus, such as seeing mushrooms as disgusting or snakes as alien and aggressive-looking.

Question 27

what is the behavioural component of OCD?

Answer 27

compulsive behaviour

Question 28

what are the 3 components of compulsive behaviours? (OCD)

Answer 28

compulsive behaviours which are repeated, compulsions reduce anxiety and avoidance

Question 29

briefly explain compulsive behaviour and give some examples

Answer 29

-typically ppl w/ OCD feel compelled to repeat a behaviour. Eg handwashing, counting, partying and tiding/reordering groups of objects

Question 32

outline the emotional characteristics of OCD

Answer 32

anxiety, distress, depression, guilt and disgust

Question 33

explain anxiety and distress as an emotional characteristic of OCD

Answer 33

-anxiety accompanies both obsessions and compulsions -obsessive thoughts are unpleasant and frightening and anxiety that goes with this can be overwhelming -the urge to repeat a behaviour (compulsion) creates anxiety

Question 34

explain depression as an emotional characteristic of OCD

Answer 34

normally accompanies OCD, so anxiety can be accompanied by low mood and lack of enjoyment in activities. compulsive behaviours tend to bring some temporary relief from anxiety

Question 35

explain guilt and disgust as an emotional characteristic of OCD

Answer 35

sufferers of OCD may also feel irrational guilt eg over minor moral issues or disgust, which may be directed gains something external like dirt or at the self

Question 36

what’s a strength of the deviation from ideal mental health definition/criterion ?

Answer 36

P: it’s highly comprehensive E: the criterion includes a great range of distinguishable mental health from mental disorder. it covers most of the reasons why one might seek (or be referred for) help with mental health which enables meaningful discussions with a range of professionals from different theoretical backgrounds. E: this means tht ideal mental health provides checklist against which we can assess ourselves and others and discuss psychological issues w/ a range of roffesionals

Question 37

what’s a limitation of the deviation from ideal mental health definition/criterion ?

Answer 37

P: it’s culture bound E: some of the criteria for ideal mental health is fairly located in the context of US and Europe. eg the concept of self actualisation would probably be dismissed as self indulgent in other cultures . also, wht defines success in our working, social and love lives is vey different in different cultures E: meaning tht its hard to apply the concept of ideal mental health from one culture to another

Question 39

explain compulsions in reducing anxiety

Answer 39

- compulsive behaviours are done in an attempt to manage the anxiety produced by obsessions. Eg handwashing is carried out as a response to an obsessive fear of germs .

Question 40

Who proposed the two - process model?

Answer 40

Mowrer

Question 41

What does the two-process model state?

Answer 41

That phobias are acquired (learnt in the first place) by classical conditioning and then continue because of operant conditioning

Question 42

Describe the study Watson and Rayner conducted to investigate phobias regarding a 9mth old baby (6 steps/points)

Answer 42

-they created a phobia in a baby called ‘Little Albert’ who initially had show. no unusual anxiety towards white rats at the start of the study -the experimenters used the sound of a iron bars banging together right by Albert’s ear which was loud and frightening. this was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) -this UCS created an unconditioned response (UCR) of fear. -when the rat (a neutral stimulus, NS) and the UCS are encountered close together, over time the NS becomes associated w/ the UCS and both now produce the fear response. so now whenever Albert saw rat, he displayed fear. -rat is now a learned or conditioned stimulus (CS), producing a conditioned response. -this conditioning then generalised to similar furry objects like a non-white rabbit and a fur coat. albert still displayed distress at these objects.

Question 43

what is reciprocal inhibition?

Answer 43

the idea tht it’s not possible for 2 opposite emotions, such as relaxation and anxiety to co- exist

Question 45

what’s systematic desensitisation

Answer 45

idea tht the patient is able to overcome anxieties (e.g phobias) by gradually counter conditioning the fear

Question 46

who developed systematic desensitisation

Answer 46

Wolpe

Question 47

how does systematic desensitisation work? (5 steps)

Answer 47

-therapist and client work together to set an aim (e.g to be able to touch a snake w/o panic). this is the target behaviour -relaxation techniques are taught and practiced- you can’t be relaxed and afraid at the same time. (this may take some time) -then, anxiety hierarchy is drawn up, target behaviour is the aim of therapy- the target behaviour is way too difficult at first -small steps are identified and worked through, using scale of 1-10 for estimating fear/challange. these steps can be real or imaginary -once client has mastered one step, they can move on.

Question 49

fill in the gaps: “responses acquired by ______ _________ usually tend to _____ over time. however, _____ are long lasting ”

Answer 49

responses acquired by CLASSICAL CONDITIONING usually tend to DECLINE over time. however, PHOBIAS are long lasting

Question 50

what does Mowrer suggest regarding how phobias persist/continue to stay due to operant conditioning?

Answer 50

that whenever a phobic stimulus is avoided, the fear and anxiety that would have been experienced if it hadn’t been steered clear from is also successfully avoided. this reduction in fear reinforces the avoidance behaviour and so the phobia is maintained.

Question 51

explain operant conditioning and how it relates to phobias.

Answer 51

operant conditioning takes place when behaviour is reinforced (rewarded) or punished. reinforcement tends to increase the frequency of behaviour. this is true of both positive and negative reinforcement. in the case of negative reinforcement an individual *avoids* an unpleasant situation i.e a phobic stimulus. such a behaviour results in a desirable consequence ( reduced fear as stimulus is avoided) which means the behaviour will be repeated.

Question 52

what's a strength of the two process model regarding real world application?

Answer 52

P: its used irl for example- exposure therapies such as systematic desensitisation E: a key part of the two process model is the idea tht phobias are maintained bc the phobic stimulus is continuously avoided. this is important in justifying why people with phobias benefit from being exposed to the phobic stimulus. E: shows the value of the two-process approach bc it identifies a means of treating phobias- once the avoidance behaviour is prevented it ceases to be reinforced by the experience of anxiety reduction so when this avoidance is prevented the phobia is cured.

Question 53

what's a limitation of the two-process model regarding the cognitive parts of phobias?

Answer 53

P: it doesn't account for the cognitive aspects of phobias. E: the two process model is a behavioural explanation and is geared towards explaining the avoidance response towards phobias but fails to explain phobic cognitions e.g. people hold irrational beliefs abt the phobic stimulus E: means tht the two-process model doesn't completely explain the symptoms of phobias.

Question 54

what's a strength of the two process model regarding phobias and traumatic experiences?

Answer 54

P: there's evidence that shows a link between bad experiences and phobias E: the little albert study illustrates how a frightening experience involving a stimulus can lead to a phobia of that stimulus. other research also shows tht most (73%) of people w/ a fear of dental treatment had experienced a traumatic experience, mostly involving dentistry. this can be compared to a control group of people w/ low dental anxiety where significantly fewer ppl had experienced a traumatic event E: this confirms tht the association between stimulus (dentistry) and an unconditioned response (pain) does lead to the development of the phobia.

Question 55

what is systematic desensitisation (SD)?

Answer 55

a behavioural therapy designed to gradually reduce phobic anxiety thru the principle of classical conditioning. if the sufferer can learn to relax in the presence of the phobic stimulus they will be cured.

Question 56

what does systematic desensitisation (SD) involve?

Answer 56

drawing up a hierarchy of anxiety-provoking situations. the patient works their way through the hierarchy whilst maintaining relaxation

Question 57

explain 'counterconditioning'. "its where..."

Answer 57

where a phobic stimulus is paired with a new, positive response (like relaxation) to replace the fear or anxiety response.

Question 58

what is 'reciprocal inhibition'?

Answer 58

the idea that two conflicting emotions (such as fear and relaxation) cannot occur at the same time. [For example, when a person is taught to feel relaxed in the presence of a feared stimulus (like a dog), the relaxation response inhibits the fear response.]

Question 59

what is 'flooding'?

Answer 59

a behavioural therapy in which a phobic patient is exposed to an extreme form of a phobic stimulus in order to reduce anxiety triggered by that stimulus. this takes place across a small number of long therapy sessions.

Question 61

what are the three processes in SD (systematic desensitisation)

Answer 61

1)the anxiety hierarchy 2)relaxation 3)exposure

Question 62

explain what the anxiety hierarchy is (as a part of the process of SD)

Answer 62

it’s a list of situations related to the phobic stimulus put together by the patient and the therapist tht provoke anxiety arranged in order from least to most frightening.

Question 63

what are the 6 common faulty thinking strategies (depression)

Answer 63

-all or nothing/dichotomous thinking -arbitrary inferences -overgeneralisation -catastrophising -selective abstraction -excessive responsibility

Question 64

define what’s meant by ‘catastrophising’

Answer 64

where relatively normal events are perceived as disasters

Question 65

define the term ‘selective abstraction’

Answer 65

when a person only pays attention to certain features of an event and ignores other features which might lead to a different conclusion

Question 66

define the term ‘arbitrary inferences’

Answer 66

drawing negative conclusions without having the evidence to support them

Question 67

define the term ‘all or nothing/dichotomous thinking’

Answer 67

a tendency to classify everything into one of two categories, e.g success and failure

Question 68

define the term ‘overgeneralisation’

Answer 68

incorrect conclusion are drawn from little evidence (e.g a single incident)

Question 70

define the term ‘excessive responsibility ’

Answer 70

excessively taking responsibility and blame for things which happen

Question 72

explain what relaxation is (as a part of the process of SD)

Answer 72

it’s when therapist teaches patient to relax as much as possible. this may involve breathing exercises, mental imagery techniques (patients can be taught to imagine themselves in relaxing situations), meditation or achieved using drugs like Valium

Question 73

explain what exposure is (as a part of the process of SD)

Answer 73

it’s when patient is exposed to phobic stimulus while in a relaxed state. takes place across several sessions, starting at the bottom of the anxiety the phobic stitches move up the hierarchy. treatment is successful when the patient can stay relaxed in situations high on the anxiety hierarchy.

Question 76

What is a strength of cognitive behaviou therapy?

Answer 76

P: there's lots of evidence that supports its effectiveness for treating depression. E: research (such as March et al) has shown that using CBT on its oh is just as effective as using anti-depressants and even more useful when used in combination. E: this means that cb+ is widely seen as it's first choice of treatment in public health care systems such as the NHS

Question 77

What's a limitation of CBT? (think about the fact that different types((e.g severely depressed patients)) of ppl may not find CBT effective)

Answer 77

P: it lacks effectiveness for severe cases & for clients with learning disabilities E: in some cases depression can be so severe that clients can't motivate themselves to engage with the cognitive work of CBT. They may not even pay attention to what's occurring in the session. E: suggest that CBT only be appropiate for a specific range of people with depression