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Psychology > Psychopathology > Flashcards

Psychopathology Flashcards

1
Q

Different types of abnormalities

A

Deviance from social moms
Failure to function adequately
Statistical infrequency
Deviation from ideal mental health

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2
Q

Statistical infrequency

A

Mentally abnormal if mental condition rare in population . Judged objectively using statistics comparing to rest of population
E.g IQ

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3
Q

Positive evaluation of using statistical infrequency for defining abnormalities

A

Doesn’t rely on subjective opinion of clinician. Evaluated objectively

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4
Q

Criticism of using statistical infrequency to define abnormality

A
  1. Psychological community decided cutoff point what is statistically rare enough to be defined as abnormal. Subjective decision
  2. not all statistical rare traits are negative e.g high intelligence
  3. Range of common psychopathology’s such as depression and anxiety. NHS found 17% for common mental health disorders
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5
Q

Failure to function adequately definition

A

Abnormal is individual cannot cope in daily lives , including ability to interact with world and meet challenges

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6
Q

Rosenhan and seligmans features of failure to function

A
  1. Maladaptive behaviour- behave in ways against long term interests
  2. Personal anguish - suffers stress and anxiety
  3. Observer discomfort - behaviour causes distress of others
  4. Irrationality - unpredictable and unexpected behaviour
  5. Unconventionality - behaviour against society’s expectations
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7
Q

Positive aspect of failure to function adequately

A

Respects individuals and personal experience, other definitions based off what is normal to rest of population such as statistical infrequency and deviation from social norms

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8
Q

Criticism of failure to function adequately

A
  1. Decision about whether someone is coping subjective and based on clinicians opinion, judgment may be biased and 2 clinicians may not agree
  2. Only includes people who cannot cope, psychopaths can often function in society in ways that personally benefit on them. Lower empath=less distress
  3. Not all maladaptive behaviour indicates mental health e.g taking part in extreme sports may risk health however subjective is mental health
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9
Q

Deviation from social norms

A

Social norm is unwritten expectation of behaviour varying from culture and can change over time. What is acceptable in one context may not be acceptable in others,
Those who deviate from societal expectations
Examples: homosexuality, hair/face covering, level of modesty

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10
Q

Advantage of using deviation from social norms

A

Does not impose western view of abnormality on other non western cultures, therefore not ethnocentric. Respects differences between societies

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11
Q

Weakness of deviation from social norms

A

-Can be inappropriate to define those who move to new country as abnormal according to new cultural norms. Afro Carribean living in UK 7x more likely to be diagnosed with schizophrenia, due to category failure. Hallucinations and conversations may be considered religious experiences
- can be seen as punishing people who are trying to express individuality and repressing those who do not conform to repressive norms of culture e.g homosexuality mental illness in 1992 , transgender health issues 2019

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12
Q

Deviation from ideal mental health

A

Deviation from 6 features indicates abnormality
6 features of ideal mental health
1. Environmental mastery- ability to adapt and thrive in new situations
2. autonomy - ability to act independent and trust one’s ability
3. Resistance to stress- internal strength to cope with anxiety daily
4. Self actualisation - ability to reach potential through personal growth
5. Positive attitude to oneself - high self esteem and self respect
6. Accurate perception of reality- ability to see world without distorting by personal bias

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13
Q

Strength of using deviation from mental health

A
  1. Uses holistic approach, more constructive than other definitions.
    Considers multiple factors in diagnosing and provided suggestion for personal development and how to overcome problems.
    Respects individuals and own experiences
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14
Q

Criticism of using deviation from ideal mental health

A
  1. Difficult to achieve all 6 criteria at once therefore most people would be defined as abnormal as criteria is too strict
  2. Humanistic approach culturally biased , reflecting western perspective . Problematic as comes from western culture . Assumes it is universal l imposed etic
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15
Q

Behavioural characteristics of phobia

A

Avoidance - adapting normal behaviour to avoid
Panic -uncontrollable, physical response at sudden appearance
Failure to function - difficulty participating in activities required to perform normal life

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16
Q

Emotional characteristics of phobias

A

Anxiety - persistent state of arousal, difficulty relaxing
Fear -linked to fight or flight. Sudden alertness in presence of phobia only subsiding when removed

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17
Q

Cognitive characteristics of phobia

A

Irrational thoughts - exaggerated belief In harm phobia can cause
Reduced cognitive capacity- cannot concentrate on day to day activities due to excessive attentional focus on phobic objects

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18
Q

Definition of depression

A

Mood disorder , consistent and long lasting sense of sadness

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19
Q

Behavioural characteristics of depression

A

Reduction in activity levels - reduction in social behaviour and everyday activities
Change In eating behaviour- significant weight gain or weight loss
Increase in aggression- acts of self harm or aggression towards others

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20
Q

Emotional characteristics of depression

A

Sadness-
Guilt-

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21
Q

Cognitive characterises of depression

A

Poor concentration- unable to give full attention to tasks, decision making
Negative schemas - automatic negative biases when thinking about themselves, world and the future

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22
Q

OCD definition

A

Obsessions- Constant intrusive thoughts causing high anxiety levels. Compulsions- behavioural response to deal with Invasive thought processes

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23
Q

Behavioural characteristics of OCD

A

compulsions- behaviour performed repeatedly to reduce anxiety e.g door is locked, washing hands
Avoidance- resist actions to avoids presence of objects that trigger obsessions
Social impairment- not participating in enjoyable social activitiesl. Withdrawal due to difficulty leaving house without triggering obsessions or need to carry out compulsions becomes time consuming

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24
Q

Emotional characteristics of OCD

A

Anxiety - resulting from obsessions

Depression - Lasting sense of sadness due to inability to thoughts and symptoms

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25
Q

Cognitive characteristics of OCD

A

Obsessions- irrational, intrusive thoughts

Hypervigilance- alertness

Selecting attention - focus on objects connected of obsession

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26
Q

Behaviourists approach to phobias

A

Learnt though interaction with environment
2 process model- classical conditioning ( associating) maintained through operant conditioning learning (learning though consequence/reinforcement

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27
Q

Classical conditioning of phobias

A

Phobic object acts as neutral stimulus, neutral response (no response)
Unconditioned stimulus produces unconditioned fear response . Unconditioned stimulus response links automatic so does not need to be learnt
Association formed when neural stimulus paired with unconditioned stimulus . Object comes conditioned stimulus producing conditioned response
Phobias can be generalised to objects similar to conditioned stimuli

28
Q

Maintenance of phobia ; operant conditioning

A

Will avoid phobic objects and situations that involve contact
Avoidance leads to reduction in anxiety (pleasant sensation) reinforcement strengthens anxiety making avoidance more likely In future

29
Q

Strengths of behaviourist approach to explaining phobias

A
  • Watson and Rayner 1920- little Albert. No phobic response to rat after associating with loud bang with rat, phobic response formed demonstrating phobias acquired through association , started generalising to similar objects e,g Watson beard
  • behaviourist theories of phobia maintenance and acquisition applied to counter conditioning therapies , systematic desensitisation and flooding , suggests behaviourist principles based on are valid
30
Q

Weakness of behaviourist approach to phobias

A

-counter research by DiNardo showed events like dog bites more common in pp’s (56%) just as common in pp’s with no dog phobia (66%). Mendes and clark found only 2% of children with phobia of water child could recall negative experience and 56% of parents told researchers phobia present from first encounter with water. Suggests approach does not fully explain all phobias
- humans display phobic response to objects causing pain In day to day lives e.g knives, cars. Better explained by evolutionary theory dangers evolutionary ancestors faced . Those with natural, instinctual fear more likely to survive and reproduce, suggesting phobias hereditary

31
Q

What are 2 of approach’s to treat phobias behaviourist approach

A

Systematic desensitisation and flooding

32
Q

What is systematic desensitisation

A
  1. Therapist teaches relaxation techniques like breathing exercises
  2. Client creates anxiety hierarchy. List of least feared to most
  3. Client exposed to each level of anxiety hierarchy. Starting with least relaxing client at each stage. Moves on when fully relaxed
  4. When client can hold phobic object no fear, associated extinct and mew association with relaxation formed
33
Q

What is flooding

A

Attempts to counter condition phobia by Immediate and full exposure to maximum level of phobic stimulus
Immediate exposure expects to extreme panic response. Therapist stops client from escaping situation
Fear response takes energy, eventually client becomes exhausted and calms down in presence of phobic object

34
Q

What is reciprocal inhibition ; behavioural

A

Fear and relaxation are 2 antagonistic emotions, Can’t feel 2 opposite emotions simultaneously.

35
Q

Strengths of systematic desensitisation

A

Client control allows for pleasurable experience, more likely for more sessions compared to flooding
Applied to virtual reality exposure therapy = Garcia Palacios found 83% of pp’s treated with VR exposures to spiders show clinically significant improvement compared to 0% of control group. Demonstrates SD valid and use of VR allows wider range of phobias to be treated

36
Q

Limitations to both flooding and systematic desensitisation

A

Limited to controlled environment therapist office and mot translate to real world e.g phobia may resurface outside

More effective in treating specific phobias, easier to contract anxiety hierarchy for object relate phobias

37
Q

Cognitive approach to depression

A

Due to irrational thoughts, resulting from maladaptive internal mental processes
Schemas= mental framework based on experiences, negative schema = negative cognitive bias

38
Q

Becks negative triad = cognitive approach depression

A

Automatic negative bias towards self, world, future
Self = feeling unworthy , inadequate
World- people being ‘hostile or threatening’
Future- thinking things will always turn out badly

Leading to avoidance, social withdrawal and inaction

39
Q

When does negative triad develop

A

Develops in adulthood but provided framework for persistent biases in adulthood.
Wads to cognitive distortions perceiving world inaccurately

40
Q

What does cognitive distortions result in

A

Overgeneralisation- one negative experience results In assumption that same thing will always happen
Selective abstraction - mentally filtering out positive experiences and focusing on negative

41
Q

Ellis ABC model depression

A

A- activating event
B. Irrational beliefs
C. Consequences, irrational beliefs lead to negative consequences

42
Q

One strength of cognitive approach of depression

A

Cognitive theories explaining depression lead to highly effective cognitive therapies. CBT has effectiveness rate of 81% after 36 weeks of treatment , same as drug therapy, successfulness suggests underlying cognitive explanations are valid

43
Q

Critiscms of cognitive approach to depression

A

Family studies and genetic research suggests predisposition to depression is inherited,. Effectiveness of drug treatments like SSRI suggests cognitive explanation not complete. Biological aspect

Theories assumption that depression thoughts are irrational however could be reasonable response to challenges face e.g poverty, racism

44
Q

Cognitive approach treating depression BECK

A

homework tasks - e,g diary, recording negative thoughts and identifying situations causing negative thinking
Behavioural activation - participating activities used to enjoy e.g sports
Thought catching - identifying irrational thoughts coming from negative triad of schemas
Patient as a scientist -patient generates and tests hypothesis about validity of irrational thoughts. When realised thoughts done match reality, schema is changed and irrational thoughts discarded

45
Q

Cognitive. Treating depression. ELLIS

A

REBT- rational emotive behavioural therapy
Development of abc model. D for dispute. E for effect
Dispute- therapist confronting irrational beliefs .Empirical arguments challenge client to provide evidence for irrational beliefs, logical arguments attempt to show beliefs don’t make sense
Effect- reduction of irrational thoughts leading to positive consequences in future

46
Q

Ellis treating depression. Shame attacking exercises

A

Client performs behaviour fear doing in front of others, shows clients can act against emotions and cope with unpleasant experience and surviving disapproval from others. People don’t acknowledge or care

47
Q

Difference between beck and Ellis treating depression

A

Becks CBT therapy client helped to figure about irrationality of thoughts themselves by acting as a scientist . Ellis REBT therapist explains irrationality of thoughts directly to patient through disputation

48
Q

Why may CBT be unethical

A

Believes it is empowers patients and gives sense of personal efficacy enabling to have control over life and making positive changes however critics argue client responsible for depression is victim blaming and suggesting depression is all in the mind and would go away with changing thinking, leads to shame, and wider society thinking mental health conditions less serious that other medical conditions

49
Q

why is CBT effective in the long term

A

Even though can take up to 16-20 sessions with trained therapist and can be expensive however preferred over drugs as lack of side effects and belief that addresses the root cause of depression not just reducing symptoms. As more effective in the long term , able to return to work as productive workers and continue contributing to economy .

50
Q

Evidence of both treatment for depression is more effective

A

March 2007
Randomly assigned 327 patients to 1/3 groups. 1. CBT. 2. drug therapy (SSRI fluoxetine) 3rd- combination of both
After 36 weeks effectiveness of 81%. CBT has significant reduction in suicidal events than drug therapy. Results came from combined treatment of 86% effectiveness and fewer suicidal results than either treatment alone

51
Q

How is CBT empowering

A

Empowers patients and gives sense of personal efficacy enabling control over own life and make positive changes

52
Q

Why is drug not useful

A

Require passive role where patients are reliant on biological intervention and may feel helpless

53
Q

What does the biological approach to ocd explain

A

-Not caused by single gene however vulnerability or predisposition to OCD inherited from parents
- OCD is polygenic
- candidate genes influence functioning of neural systems in brain e.g SERT gene affecting reuptake in serotonin system

54
Q

Where does evidence for heritability of OCD comes from

A

Family and twin studies.
Prevalence rate of OCD in general population is 2%
Genetically related people have higher concordance rates
First degree relatives = 10%
Dizygotic twins = 31%
Monozygotic = 68%
Suggests predisposition to OCD is inherited

55
Q

Neural explanation for OCD . Serotonin
(Biological)

A
  • biochemical cause imbalance of neurotransmitters and large neural structures of brains ,ade of many neurons
    -Low serotonin levels cause obsessive thoughts
    -Low level of serotonin likely due to being removed too quickly from -synapse before able to influence post synaptic cell
    -Presynaptic neurons release neurotransmitters and receptors on post -synaptic detecting these, if signal strong enough messages passed on . Neurotransmitters detach from receptors and taken back to presynaptic neuron through reuptake.
  • process happens too quickly with individual OCD leading to reduce serotonin levels in synapse
    SERT gene responsible for serotonin transportation in synapse
56
Q

Neural explanation : neural structure

A

‘Worry system’
Set of brain structures : orbitofrontal cortex (rational decision making), basal ganglia system and thalamus.
Communication between structures in worry circuit overactive in OCD individuals
Normal functioning = basal ganglia filters worries from ofc (orbito frontal cortex) if area is hyperactive, worries sent thalamus passed back to or too frontal cortex
Repetitive motor functions attempt to break loop of compulsions. Compulsion gives temporary relief however hyperactive basal ganglia soon resume worry circuit
Parahippocampal gyrus also linked to OCD, responsible for regulating and processing unpleasant emotions, functioning abnormally in OCD patients

57
Q

Evidence for biological approach to OCD

A

-Nestadt 2010- high concordance rate between family members. Dizygotic 31% cr, monozygotic 68%. DZ and MZ share similar environments, upbringing and life events therefore increased concordance due to shared DNA
Neuroimaging studies e,g PET scans have shown hyperactivity in orbitofrontal cortex and caudate nucleus in people with OCD both scanning brain at rest and when symptoms stimulated. However issue is based on correlation. Cannot be sure if hyperactivity in brain is caused of OCD or consequences of OCD

58
Q

Why is biological approach not valid

A

Family/twin studies not equal causation. May not be shared genetics, closer family members share same environment . Concordance rate for monozygotic twins is 68% not 100% which would be 100% for entirely genetic psychological feature therefore environment must play a role

59
Q

Why may biological approach not be used alone

A

Diathetis stress response more valid, individuals inherit genetic vulnerability to OCD however disorder does not develop unless environmental factor such as life event.
Cromer showed 54%of 265 pp with OCD reported at least 1 traumatic event and those with traumatic life events reported increased severity of OCD symptoms demonstrating environmental aspect

60
Q

Drug therapy - biological treatment

A

-Control symptoms of OCD groping of antidepressants called SSRI
- influence serotonin in brain as reuptake inhibitors ; inhibit reuptake process in synapse thereore serotonin present in synaptic cleft and continues to stimulate postsynaptic neuron decreasing anxiety by normalising activity of worry circuit
-

61
Q

What does SSRI stand tor

A

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

62
Q

Role of benzodiazepines

A

Anti anxiety drugs
Enhances neurotransmitters GABA
slows central nervous system resulting in relaxation

63
Q

Role of tricyclics and SNRI’s

A

Increases serotonin and noradrenaline
Effective when SSRI fail
Works on multiple neurotransmitters however more side effects

64
Q

Strengths of drug treatment

A

-Soomro- conducted meta analysis combining data from 17 studies compared SSRI’S to placebos
Results of meta analysis showed SSRI’S reduced symptoms of OCD compared to placebos between 6 and 17 week post treatment, suggests drug therapy effective short term
- drug therapy inexpensive and more convenient compared to CHT requiring patient to find time for multiple sessions with therapist, as CBT more expensive health services such as NHS more likely provide drug therapy

65
Q

Why is drug therapy not useful

A

Preferrable CBT as drug therapy can have side effects,
in soomro meta analysis, found patents had nausea, headache, insomnia common
Drug therapy can take up to 4 months for symptom reduction and can become reliant

Psychology (11 decks)

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