Psychopathology Flashcards
(260 cards)
1
Q
What is meant by “Deviation from Social Norms” in the context of abnormality?
A
It refers to any behavior that goes against the accepted, expected, and approved ways of behaving in a society. Abnormality is seen as breaking the ‘rules of society’.
2
Q
AO3 - Why is the definition of “Deviation from Social Norms” considered unreliable over time?
A
Social norms change over time. What is socially acceptable now may not have been acceptable 50 years ago, reducing the reliability of this definition.
3
Q
AO3 - Provide an example of how social norms have changed over time.
A
Homosexuality is now acceptable but was previously classified as a disorder in the DSM used by psychiatrists.
4
Q
AO3 - How do social norms differ between cultures, impacting the definition of abnormality?
A
Norms are culturally relative. For example, hearing voices is viewed as abnormal in some cultures but more accepted in others.
5
Q
AO3 - Why is the cultural relativity of social norms a problem for defining abnormality?
A
A reliable definition of abnormality should be consistent between cultures, which this definition is not.
6
Q
AO3 - How can defining abnormality by social norms be seen as repressive?
A
It can punish individuals for expressing their individuality and conforming to repressive cultural norms.
7
Q
AO3 - Provide examples of changes in social norms recognized by the World Health Organization.
A
The WHO declassified homosexuality as a mental illness in 1992 and transgender health issues in 2019, reflecting changing social norms.
8
Q
AO3 - Why might using social norms to define abnormality be damaging?
A
It can harm individuals who do not conform to social norms, suggesting the need for a more appropriate definition.
9
Q
AO3 - What is a strength of the “Deviation from Social Norms” definition compared to “statistical infrequency”?
A
It distinguishes between desirable and undesirable behavior and considers the impact on others.
10
Q
AO3 - Give an example of how the “Deviation from Social Norms” definition is more appropriate than “statistical infrequency.”
A
Spending a lot of time washing hands may not be statistically infrequent but can be harmful to the individual and their loved ones.
11
Q
AO1 - What does “Failure to Function Adequately” mean in the context of abnormality?
A
A: It means that a person is unable to cope with everyday life or engage in everyday behaviors, causing distress and suffering for themselves and/or others.
12
Q
AO1- Provide examples of behaviors indicating a failure to function adequately.
A
Examples include being unable to hold down a job, struggling with everyday activities like eating regularly, washing clothes, or shopping.
13
Q
AO1 - Why is “distress to others” included in the definition of failure to function adequately?
A
Because in some mental disorders, the individual may not be distressed but their behavior can cause distress to others, such as in the case of schizophrenia.
14
Q
AO1 - What characteristics of abnormality did Rosenhan and Seligman propose?
A
1) Suffering,
2) Maladaptive behavior,
3) Unconventionality,
4) Unpredictability and loss of control
5) Irrationality and incomprehensibility.
15
Q
AO1 - What is meant by “maladaptive behavior”?
A
A: It refers to behavior that prevents a person from progressing in life.
16
Q
AO1 - How does the characteristic “unconventionality” relate to abnormality?
A
A: It means that the behavior of an abnormal person is odd in some way.
17
Q
AO1 - How does “irrationality and incomprehensibility” characterize abnormal behavior?
A
It refers to behavior that others cannot understand or make sense of.
18
Q
AO3 - What is a strength of the “Failure to Function Adequately” definition?
A
It includes the patient’s perspective, considering the level of distress experienced by the patient.
19
Q
Provide an example of how the patient’s perspective is considered in failure to function adequately definition.
A
The level of distress experienced by the patient is taken into account when defining their behavior as abnormal.
20
Q
AO3 - What is a limitation of the “Failure to Function Adequately” definition regarding dysfunction?
A
Abnormality is not always accompanied by dysfunction; for example, psychopaths can cause harm while appearing normal.
21
Q
Give an example of an abnormal person who did not display dysfunction.
A
Harold Shipman, a GP who murdered at least 215 patients, seemed respectable and did not display features of dysfunction.
22
Q
AO3 - How does cultural relativism limit the “Failure to Function Adequately” definition?
A
Different cultures have different views on what constitutes adequate functioning, such as the varying acceptance of long periods of grief after bereavement.
23
Q
Why is cultural relativism a problem for this definition?
A
Because for the definition to be reliable, the same behavior should be viewed consistently across different cultures.
24
Q
AO3 - What is another limitation of the “Failure to Function Adequately” definition?
A
Abnormality could be due to other factors, such as economic situations, rather than mental health issues.
25
AO3 - What is another limitation of the “Failure to Function Adequately” definition?
Abnormality could be due to other factors, such as economic situations, rather than mental health issues.
26
Provide an example of a situation where abnormality might be mislabelled using this failure to function adequately definition
Someone unable to hold down a job due to economic conditions might be incorrectly labeled as abnormal when other definitions might not.
27
AO1 - What does the definition of “Statistical Infrequency” state about abnormal behavior?
Any behavior that is statistically rare is considered abnormal.
28
How do we determine if a behavior is statistically rare?
By examining a normal distribution curve to identify the proportion of people sharing the characteristics or behavior being looked at.
29
When is human behavior considered abnormal in statistical terms?
When it falls outside the range that is typical for most people, usually two standard deviations from the mean.
30
Provide examples of characteristics that might be considered statistically infrequent.
Height, weight, and intelligence—people outside the typical range might be considered abnormally tall or short, fat or thin, clever or unintelligent.
31
What is a strength of the “Statistical Infrequency” definition of abnormality?
It is an objective way to define abnormality with a clear ‘cut off’ point, making it easier to decide who meets the criteria to be labeled as abnormal.
32
Why is the “Statistical Infrequency” definition seen as less subjective than other definitions?
Because it provides a clear and agreed-upon ‘cut off’ point.
33
AO3 - What is a major problem with the “Statistical Infrequency” definition?
It includes many abnormal behaviors that are actually quite desirable, like having a high IQ.
34
AO3 - Why might common but undesirable behaviors pose a problem for the “Statistical Infrequency” definition?
Because behaviors like experiencing depression after a painful event are common but undesirable, complicating treatment planning.
35
Why can’t the “Statistical Infrequency” definition be used alone to make a diagnosis?
Because it fails to distinguish between desirable and undesirable abnormal behaviors.
36
AO3 - Why can’t the “Statistical Infrequency” definition be used alone to make a diagnosis?
Because it fails to distinguish between desirable and undesirable abnormal behaviors.
37
AO3 - What issue arises when trying to separate normality from abnormality using Statistical Infrequency definition?
Because it fails to distinguish between desirable and undesirable abnormal behaviors.
38
What issue arises when trying to separate normality from abnormality using this definition?
Deciding the cut-off point for what is considered abnormal, especially for disorders that vary greatly in severity like depression.
39
AO3 - Why is it difficult to determine when a common symptom, like crying, becomes abnormal?
Because the cut-off point is subjectively determined, lacking the validity needed for effective diagnosis.
40
AO3 - How can the “Statistical Infrequency” definition be culturally biased?
Some behaviors that are statistically infrequent in one culture may be more frequent in another.
41
Provide an example of a behavior that is statistically infrequent in some cultures but common in others.
Hearing voices, a symptom of schizophrenia, is common in some cultures.
42
Provide an example of a behavior that is statistically infrequent in some cultures but common in others.
Hearing voices, a symptom of schizophrenia, is common in some cultures.
43
AO3 - Why is cultural bias a problem for the “Statistical Infrequency” definition?
Because it may classify individuals as abnormal even when they are displaying normal behavior for their culture, limiting its applicability.
44
AO1 - How does the “Deviation from Ideal Mental Health” approach differ from other definitions of abnormality?
Unlike other definitions, it defines criteria for normality (or ideal mental health) and considers people who lack these criteria as abnormal.
45
AO1 - Who defined the concept of ideal mental health and when?
Marie Jahoda in 1958.
46
AO1 - What are the six characteristics of ideal mental health according to Jahoda?
1. Perception of reality
2. Resistance to stress
3. Self-attitudes
4. Autonomy
5. Self-actualization and personal growth
6. Mastery of the environment
47
AO1 - What does “Perception of reality” mean in the context of ideal mental health?
Being able to see the world as it is.
48
AO1 - How is “Resistance to stress” defined in ideal mental health?
The ability to cope with stressful situations.
49
AO1 - What is meant by “Self-attitudes” in ideal mental health?
Having high self-esteem and a strong sense of self-identity.
50
AO1 - What does “Autonomy” refer to in ideal mental health?
Functioning as an independent individual.
51
AO1 - What does “Autonomy” refer to in ideal mental health?
Functioning as an independent individual.
52
AO1 - What is “Self-actualization and personal growth” in the context of ideal mental health?
Focusing on the future and fulfilling one’s potential.
53
AO1 - How is “Mastery of the environment” defined in ideal mental health?
The ability to adjust to new situations and function effectively at work and in relationships with others.
54
AO1 - What happens if someone lacks the qualities defined by Jahoda for ideal mental health?
The fewer of these qualities a person has, the more abnormal they are seen to be.
55
AO3 - What is one strength of the “Deviation from Ideal Mental Health” definition?
It offers an alternative perspective on mental disorders by focusing on positive behaviors rather than negative ones.
56
AO3 - How does Jahoda’s definition align with the humanistic approach?
Both focus on the positive aspects of human nature.
57
AO3 - What is a potential cultural bias in the “Deviation from Ideal Mental Health” definition?
The ideals of mental health may not be applicable to all cultures, making the definition ethnocentric.
58
AO3 - Why might the criterion of self-actualization be culturally biased?
It is relevant to individualistic cultures but not to collectivist cultures where the focus is on the greater good of the community.
59
AO3 - What is a major criticism regarding the clarity of criteria in the “Deviation from Ideal Mental Health” definition?
It is unclear how many criteria need to be lacking before someone is considered to be deviating from ideal mental health.
60
AO3 - Why is the lack of clear criteria a problem in this definition?
It requires subjective judgment by individual psychiatrists, leading to inconsistency and a lack of objectivity.
61
What is a phobia
An irrational fear of an object or situation
62
What does behavioural mean
Ways in which people act
63
What does emotional mean
Ways in which people feel
64
What does cognitive mean
Ways in which people process information
65
AO1 - What does DSM stand for?
Diagnostic & Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.
66
What are the three mental disorders you need to know about
Phobias, depression, and OCD.
67
How are phobias characterized according to DSM-5?
By excessive fear and anxiety triggered by an object, place, or situation, with the fear being out of proportion to any real danger.
68
What are the categories of phobias recognized by DSM-5?
Specific phobia, social phobia, and agoraphobia.
69
AO1 - What is a specific phobia?
Fear of an object, such as an animal, or a situation, such as flying or having an injection.
70
AO1 - What is a social phobia?
Phobia of a social situation, such as public speaking or using a public toilet.
71
AO1 - What is agoraphobia?
Fear of leaving home or a safe place, characterized by fear of being outside or in a public place.
72
AO1 - What are the behavioral ways in which people act in response to phobias?
Panic, avoidance, and disruption of functioning.
73
AO1 - Why do people with phobias avoid certain situations?
Because anxiety increases by being close to the feared situation.
74
AO1 - Why do people with phobias avoid certain situations?
Because anxiety increases by being close to the feared situation.
75
How can phobias disrupt functioning?
Anxiety and avoidance responses can interfere with everyday working and social functioning.
76
What are irrational beliefs in the context of cognitive characteristics of phobias?
Sufferers often hold irrational beliefs about the phobic stimuli and are resistant to rational arguments.
77
What is selective attention in relation to phobias?
Sufferers focus intently on a phobic stimulus, making it difficult to look away, which can interfere with day-to-day life.
78
Why is selective attention not useful in the case of irrational fears?
Because it interferes with normal activities, such as a pogonophobic struggling to concentrate if someone in the room has a beard.
79
What are some emotional characteristics of phobias
Anxiety and fear
80
AO1 - What are some cognitive characteristics of Phobias
Irrational beliefs and selection and attention
81
AO1- What is anxiety in the context of emotional characteristics of phobias?
An unpleasant state of high arousal making it difficult to experience positive emotions, often long-term.
82
AO1 - How is fear characterized in phobias?
As an extremely unreasonable emotional response to a phobic stimulus.
83
AO1 - What are irrational beliefs in the context of cognitive characteristics of phobias?
Sufferers often hold irrational beliefs about the phobic stimuli and are resistant to rational arguments.
84
AO1 - What is the Behavioural Approach in psychology?
A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning.
85
AO1 - What is Classical Conditioning?
Learning by association, occurring when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together – UCS and NS, with the NS eventually producing the same response as the UCS alone, becoming the CS.
86
AO1 - What is Operant Conditioning?
A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences, including positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment.
87
What is the Two-Process Model (Mowrer, 1960)?
A model stating that phobias are acquired by classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning.
88
What is the Two-Process Model (Mowrer, 1960)?
A model stating that phobias are acquired by classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning.
89
AO1 - How are phobias acquired through Classical Conditioning?
By associating a stimulus with a response, such as the fear of dogs after being bitten.
90
AO1 Give an example of Classical Conditioning in phobias.
Watson and Rayner induced a fear of white rats in Little Albert by pairing the rat (NS) with a loud noise (UCS), resulting in a new stimulus (CS) being learned.
91
AO1 - How are phobias maintained through Operant Conditioning?
Through negative reinforcement, where avoiding a phobic stimulus reduces fear and anxiety, reinforcing avoidance behaviour and maintaining the phobia. Through negative reinforcement, where avoiding a phobic stimulus reduces fear and anxiety, reinforcing avoidance behaviour and maintaining the phobia.
92
Through negative reinforcement, where avoiding a phobic stimulus reduces fear and anxiety, reinforcing avoidance behaviour and maintaining the phobia. Through negative reinforcement, where avoiding a phobic stimulus reduces fear and anxiety, reinforcing avoidance behaviour and maintaining the phobia.
93
AO1 - What did Mowrer (1960) demonstrate in his experiment?
That rats could be trained to escape a shock by jumping over a barrier when a buzzer sounded, supporting the Two-Process Model.
94
AO1 - What did Mowrer (1960) demonstrate in his experiment?
That rats could be trained to escape a shock by jumping over a barrier when a buzzer sounded, supporting the Two-Process Model.
95
AO1 - What are some practical applications of the behaviourist explanation of phobias?
Behavioural therapies such as systematic desensitisation, which uses classical conditioning to ‘unlearn’ phobias, are effective in treating a range of phobias.
96
AO1 - What evidence supports the success of systematic desensitisation in treating phobias?
McGrath et al (1990) found that 75% of phobic patients showed improvement in their symptoms after treatment.
97
AO3 - What criticism does the behaviourist explanation face regarding evolutionary factors?
It fails to explain innate predispositions to fear things like snakes and spiders, which have been sources of danger in our evolutionary past.
98
AO1 - What does Seligman’s (1971) research suggest about phobias?
That we are naturally predisposed to fear certain things due to evolutionary factors, indicating that the Two-Process Model may be too simplistic.
99
AO3 - How does the behaviourist explanation fail to address cognitive aspects of phobias?
It doesn’t account for irrational thoughts, such as the fear of suffocating in a lift, which can create extreme anxiety and trigger phobias.
100
Why is a combined approach needed to explain phobias?
Because a thorough explanation of phobias requires incorporating both behavioural and cognitive components.
101
AO1 - What is Systematic Desensitisation?
A behavioural therapy designed to reduce an unwanted response, like anxiety, to a stimulus through a hierarchy of anxiety-provoking situations while maintaining relaxation.
102
AO1 - What is Flooding?
A treatment where the phobic patient is exposed to an extreme form of the phobic stimulus to reduce anxiety triggered by that stimulus.
103
AO1 - What is Flooding?
A treatment where the phobic patient is exposed to an extreme form of the phobic stimulus to reduce anxiety triggered by that stimulus.
104
What are the two treatment types stemming from the behavioural approach to treating phobias?
Systematic Desensitisation and Flooding.
105
AO1 - What is the goal of Systematic Desensitisation?
To learn to relax in the presence of the phobic stimulus, thus curing the phobia.
106
AO1 - What are the three processes involved in Systematic Desensitisation?
Anxiety Hierarchy, Relaxation, and Exposure.
107
AO1 - What is an Anxiety Hierarchy in Systematic Desensitisation?
A list of situations related to the phobic stimulus, ordered from least to most fearful.
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AO1 - What is Reciprocal Inhibition in the context of Systematic Desensitisation?
The principle that it is impossible to be afraid and relaxed at the same time, making relaxation a key part of SD.
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AO1 - What relaxation techniques are commonly taught in Systematic Desensitisation?
Deep breathing, mindfulness, visualisation, and sometimes anti-anxiety drugs like Valium.
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AO1 - How does the Exposure process work in Systematic Desensitisation?
The patient is exposed to the phobic stimulus while in a relaxed state, starting from the least fearful situation and moving up the hierarchy as they maintain relaxation.
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AO1 - What are the two ways exposure can be done in Systematic Desensitisation?
In vitro (imagined exposure) and in vivo (actual exposure).
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AO3 - What evidence supports the effectiveness of Systematic Desensitisation?
McGrath et al (1990) reported 75% of patients improved there symptoms, and Gilroy (2003) found less fear in patients treated for spider phobia 33 months later compared to a control group.
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Why do sufferers tend to prefer Systematic Desensitisation over flooding?
Because SD does not cause the same degree of trauma as flooding, leading to low attrition rates.
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AO3 - What is a limitation of Systematic Desensitisation regarding evolutionary phobias?
Ohman (1975) suggested SD may not be as effective for phobias with an underlying evolutionary component, such as fear of heights or dangerous animals.
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AO3 - What are other limitations of Systematic Desensitisation?
It is not suitable for patients who cannot effectively use relaxation techniques or do not have vivid imaginations for fear images.
116
AO3 - What is an economic benefit of Systematic Desensitisation?
It is a cost-effective therapy for most phobias, potentially reducing the economic burden of mental health issues, which cost the English economy around £22.5 billion a year.
117
AO1 - What is Flooding in the context of treating phobias?
A behavioural therapy that involves immediate and intense exposure to a phobic stimulus without the gradual progression seen in Systematic Desensitisation (SD).
118
AO1 - How does Flooding differ from Systematic Desensitisation (SD)?
Flooding involves immediate exposure to the most frightening situation, whereas SD involves a gradual progression through an anxiety hierarchy.
119
AO1 - What typically happens during a Flooding session?
The patient is exposed to their phobia at its worst and practices relaxation until they are fully relaxed, usually in one long session.
120
AO1 - How does Flooding stop phobic responses?
By preventing avoidance of the phobic stimulus, leading to the quick learning that the stimulus is harmless, a process known as ‘extinction’ in classical conditioning.
121
AO1 - What is ‘extinction’ in the context of Flooding?
A learned response (CR) is extinguished when a CS is encountered without the UCS, resulting in the CS no longer producing the CR.
122
AO3 - What is a strength of Flooding as a treatment for phobias?
It is a cost-effective treatment because it is as effective as SD but significantly quicker (Ougin, 2011).
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AO3 - What is a strength of Flooding as a treatment for phobias?
It is a cost-effective treatment because it is as effective as SD but significantly quicker (Ougin, 2011).
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AO3 - What is a limitation of Flooding regarding patient experience?
It is a highly traumatic experience, and patients are often unwilling to complete the treatment, leading to wasted time and money.
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Why is Flooding less effective for complex phobias like social phobia and agoraphobia?
Behavioural treatments like Flooding are unable to address the irrational thinking that is common with these phobias, suggesting the need for treatments like CBT.
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Why might CBT be a more effective treatment for social phobia and agoraphobia than Flooding?
Because CBT addresses the irrational thinking associated with these complex phobias, which Flooding does not.
127
AO3 - What is a major limitation of Flooding in terms of its applicability?
Flooding appears to be restricted in its usefulness to specific phobias and less effective for complex phobias like social phobia and agoraphobia.
128
AO1 - What is depression classified as according to DSM-5?
Depression is classified as a mood disorder.
129
AO1 - What are the two types of depression distinguished by DSM-5?
Major depressive disorder (severe but often short-term) and persistent depressive disorder (longer-term and/or recurring).
130
AO1 - What are the behavioural characteristics of depression related to sleep and eating?
Disruption of sleep (insomnia or hypersomnia) and eating behaviors (appetite increase or decrease leading to weight loss or gain).
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AO1 - How is loss of energy a behavioural characteristic of depression?
Depressed individuals may experience fatigue, lethargy, and high levels of inactivity, making it difficult to perform daily activities.
132
AO1 - What are the emotional characteristics of depression related to sadness?
Feelings of sadness, emptiness, worthlessness, hopelessness, and low self-esteem.
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AO1 - What are the emotional characteristics of depression related to sadness?
Feelings of sadness, emptiness, worthlessness, hopelessness, and low self-esteem.
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Anger can be directed as aggression towards oneself (e.g., self-harming) or towards others (e.g., close family members).
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Anger can be directed as aggression towards oneself (e.g., self-harming) or towards others (e.g., close family members).
136
How do people with depression view themselves, the world, and the future?
They often focus and dwell on the negative, with a bias towards reporting unhappy events over happy ones, and these negative thoughts are irrational.
137
What are the cognitive characteristics of depression
Focusing and dwelling on the negative and poor concentration
138
AO1 - According to the cognitive approach, what causes depression?
It is not the events themselves but the way individuals think about these events that cause depression.
139
What are the two main cognitive approaches to explaining depression
The ABC model and the Negative Triad.
140
Who proposed the ABC Model for understanding mental disorders such as depression?
Albert Ellis (1962).
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In Ellis’ ABC Model, what does ‘A’ stand for?
Activating event (e.g., getting sacked at work).
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In Ellis’ ABC Model, what does ‘A’ stand for?
Activating event (e.g., getting sacked at work).
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What are examples of activating events in Ellis’ ABC Model?
Failing an important test or ending a relationship.
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In Ellis’ ABC Model, what does ‘B’ represent?
Belief, which may be rational or irrational.
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What is an example of a rational belief according to Ellis’ ABC Model?
E.g “The company was overstaffed.”
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What is an example of an irrational belief according to Ellis’ ABC Model?
E.g “I was sacked because they’ve always had it in for me.”
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What does mustabatory thinking refer to in Ellis’ ABC Model?
The belief that one must always succeed or achieve perfection (e.g., ‘I must be liked by everyone’ or ‘I must get an A on all my tests’).
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What does mustabatory thinking refer to in Ellis’ ABC Model?
The belief that one must always succeed or achieve perfection (e.g., ‘I must be liked by everyone’ or ‘I must get an A on all my tests’).
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In Ellis’ ABC Model, what does ‘C’ stand for?
Consequences, where rational beliefs lead to healthy emotions (e.g., acceptance) and irrational beliefs lead to unhealthy emotions, including depression.
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What are the emotional consequences of holding irrational beliefs according to Ellis’ ABC Model?
Unhealthy emotions, including depression.
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What is a limitation of the ABC Model in explaining depression?
The ABC Model cannot explain all types of depression because not all cases are triggered by an activating event.
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What is an example of depression that the ABC Model cannot explain?
Endogenous depression, which is caused by chemical and/or genetic factors rather than an activating life event.
153
What does the inability of the ABC Model to explain endogenous depression suggest about its validity?
It means the ABC explanation only applies to some kinds of depression (e.g., reactive depression) and is therefore an invalid explanation of depression
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What does the inability of the ABC Model to explain endogenous depression suggest about its validity?
It means the ABC explanation only applies to some kinds of depression (e.g., reactive depression) and is therefore an invalid explanation of depression
155
Beck believed that depressed individuals feel as they do because their thinking is biased towards negative interpretations of the world.
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What is a negative self-schema?
A negative self-schema is a packet of ideas and information about oneself, developed through experience, often caused by parental and/or peer rejection and criticism during childhood.
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How do negative self-schemas affect thinking?
Negative self-schemas lead to cognitive biases (distortions) in thinking.
158
What is the Negative Triad according to Beck?
The Negative Triad consists of three types of negative thinking that occur automatically: negative views of the self, the world, and the future.
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What are the components of the Negative Triad?
1. Negative view of the self (e.g., “I am a bore”).
2. Negative view of the world (e.g., “Everything is against me, everyone leaves me”).
3. Negative view of the future (e.g., “I will always be on my own”).
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How do negative views of the self affect depression?
Negative views of the self enhance any existing depressive feelings by confirming low self-esteem.
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How do negative views of the world affect depression?
Negative views of the world create the impression that there is no hope anywhere.
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How do negative views of the future affect depression?
What does Beck argue the Negative Triad creates?
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What evidence supports Beck’s theory of depression?
1. Grazioli and Terry (2000) found that pregnant women with high cognitive biases were more likely to suffer post-natal depression.
2. Clark and Beck (1999) conducted a meta-analysis supporting Beck’s cognitive theory.
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What did Grazioli and Terry (2000) find about cognitive biases and post-natal depression?
They found that women with a high number of cognitive biases before birth were more likely to suffer post-natal depression.
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What did Grazioli and Terry (2000) find about cognitive biases and post-natal depression?
They found that women with a high number of cognitive biases before birth were more likely to suffer post-natal depression.
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What did Clark and Beck (1999) conclude from their meta-analysis?
They found strong support for Beck’s cognitive theory of depression.
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What did Clark and Beck (1999) conclude from their meta-analysis?
They found strong support for Beck’s cognitive theory of depression.
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Why is Beck’s theory considered a valid explanation of depression?
A range of evidence, such as the studies by Grazioli and Terry (2000) and Clark and Beck (1999), supports the idea that depression is due to negative thinking.
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What is the cognitive treatment for depression called?
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT).
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What is the aim of CBT for depression?
The aim of CBT is to replace irrational, negative thoughts experienced by depressed patients with more rational, positive ones, leading to more constructive emotional and behavioural responses.
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What does CBT begin with?
CBT begins with an initial assessment in which the patient and therapist identify the patient’s depressive symptoms and agree on a set of goals.
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What do most CBT therapists use to help clients achieve their goals and change their negative thinking
Most CBT therapists use techniques taken from both forms of CBT: Beck’s cognitive therapy and Ellis’s rational emotive behaviour therapy.
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What is the main goal of cognitive therapy related to the negative triad?
To identify and challenge negative thoughts about the world, the self, and the future.
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What kind of homework might be set for patients in cognitive therapy?
Patients might be asked to record positive events or interactions and to engage in pleasurable activities.
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How does cognitive therapy use the concept of ‘patient as scientist’?
Patients test the reality of their negative beliefs in a scientific manner.
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What does REBT stand for and what does it extend?
Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy; it extends the ABC model to an ABCDE model.
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What do the letters D and E stand for in REBT?
D stands for disputing irrational beliefs, and E stands for the effects of disputing the beliefs.
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What are the three types of disputing in REBT?
Logical disputing, empirical disputing, and pragmatic disputing.
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What is logical disputing in REBT?
Challenging whether self-defeating beliefs logically follow from the information available
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What is empirical disputing in REBT?
Challenging whether self-defeating beliefs are consistent with reality.
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What is pragmatic disputing in REBT?
Emphasizing the lack of usefulness of self-defeating beliefs.
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What is the effect (E) of challenging irrational thoughts in REBT?
The patient develops more rational beliefs, becomes less depressed, and engages in constructive behaviors.
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What is one strength of CBT in treating depression?
One strength of CBT is that it has proven to be effective in treating depression.
184
What did March et al (2007) compare in their study?
March et al (2007) compared CBT with drug therapy (antidepressants).
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What were the findings of March et al (2007) after 36 weeks?
They found that 81% of patients showed improvement in both the CBT and drug therapy groups.
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Why is the finding from March et al (2007) significant?
It shows that CBT is just as effective as drug therapy at treating depression but without the unpleasant side effects that most people experience while taking antidepressants.
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What are the economic benefits of CBT?
Mental health issues cost the English economy around £22.5 billion per year. CBT reduces unnecessary healthcare costs on ineffective treatments and enables people to return to work, thus helping the economy.
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What is a counter-argument to the economic benefits of CBT?
CBT is not the preferred method of treatment for most patients. Drug therapy requires little effort, is just as effective at treating depression, is less expensive, and does not require trained therapists, potentially making it more beneficial to the economy.
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What is one issue with using CBT as a treatment for depression?
CBT may not work for all sufferers, especially those who are severely depressed.
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Why might CBT not be suitable for all depression sufferers?
Many patients lack the motivation to engage successfully in CBT programs, particularly those who are severely depressed.
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What is OCD?
OCD is a condition characterized by obsessions and/or compulsions.
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What is OCD?
OCD is a condition characterized by obsessions and/or compulsions.
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What is OCD?
OCD is a condition characterized by obsessions and/or compulsions.
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What are obsessions in the context of OCD?
Obsessions are recurring thoughts.
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What are compulsions in the context of OCD?
Compulsions are repetitive behaviors.
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At what stage of life does OCD usually begin?
OCD usually begins in young adult life.
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What are the two main components of OCD?
The two main components of OCD are obsessions and compulsions.
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What are the behavioural characteristics of OCD?
The behavioural characteristics of OCD include compulsive behaviours and avoidance.
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What are compulsive behaviours in OCD?
Compulsive behaviours are repetitive actions that sufferers feel compelled to repeat to reduce anxiety, such as hand-washing, counting, or tidying/ordering.
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What is avoidance in the context of OCD?
Avoidance involves avoiding situations that trigger anxiety, such as avoiding contact with germs, which can interfere with daily life.
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What are the emotional characteristics of OCD?
The emotional characteristics of OCD include anxiety and distress, and shame or disgust
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How do obsessions and compulsions affect OCD sufferers emotionally?
Obsessions and compulsions cause considerable anxiety and stress, and feelings of anxiety are often temporarily reduced by performing compulsive behaviours.
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What emotional response might OCD sufferers feel due to their awareness of their behaviours?
Sufferers often feel shame and disgust due to the awareness that their behaviour is excessive.
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How do obsessions and compulsions affect OCD sufferers emotionally
Obsessions and compulsions cause considerable anxiety and stress, and feelings of anxiety are often temporarily reduced by performing compulsive behaviours.
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What emotional response might OCD sufferers feel due to their awareness of their behaviours?
Sufferers often feel shame and disgust due to the awareness that their behaviour is excessive.
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What are the cognitive characteristics of OCD?
The cognitive characteristics of OCD include obsessions and awareness of excessive anxiety.
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What forms can obsessions take in OCD?
Obsessions can take the form of ideas, doubts, impulses, or images.
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What percentage of OCD sufferers experience obsessions?
90% of OCD sufferers experience obsessions.
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What percentage of OCD sufferers experience obsessions?
90% of OCD sufferers experience obsessions.
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What does the biological approach to explaining OCD focus on?
The biological approach focuses on physical processes in the body, such as genetic inheritance and neural function.
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What do genetic explanations for OCD suggest?
Genetic explanations suggest that behaviour and certain disorders can be traced back to our genetic make-up.
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What do genetic explanations for OCD suggest?
Genetic explanations suggest that behaviour and certain disorders can be traced back to our genetic make-up.
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What do neural explanations for OCD involve?
Neural explanations involve the role of the nervous system, including the brain and individual neurons, in determining behaviour and certain disorders.
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How can the genes we inherit from our parents affect our likelihood of developing OCD?
The genes we inherit can predispose us to OCD. For example, Lewis (1936) found that 37% of his OCD patients had parents with the disorder, suggesting that specific genes are related to the onset of OCD.
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What did Lewis (1936) find in his study on OCD?
Lewis found that 37% of his OCD patients had parents with the disorder.
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What is the role of the COMT gene in OCD?
The COMT gene is an enzyme that regulates dopamine. In people with OCD, this gene mutates, preventing the COMT enzyme from regulating dopamine levels, causing high levels of dopamine.
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How does the mutation of the COMT gene affect dopamine levels in OCD patients?
The mutation prevents the COMT enzyme from regulating dopamine levels, resulting in high levels of dopamine.
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What is the role of the SERT gene in OCD?
The SERT gene is involved in the transportation of serotonin. In people with OCD, the SERT gene mutates, causing lower levels of serotonin.
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How does the mutation of the SERT gene affect serotonin levels in OCD patients?
The mutation causes lower levels of serotonin, increasing the likelihood of developing OCD.
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What does it mean that OCD is polygenic?
OCD is not caused by a single gene but involves several genes. Taylor (2013) found that up to 230 different genes may be involved in OCD, including the SERT and COMT genes.
221
According to Taylor (2013), how many genes may be involved in OCD?
Up to 230 different genes may be involved in OCD.
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What evidence suggests that different types of OCD may be due to different gene combinations?
There is evidence indicating that different types of OCD may result from different gene combinations.
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How do genes associated with OCD affect the brain?
Genes associated with OCD affect the level of certain neurotransmitters and particular structures within the brain.
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How are serotonin levels related to OCD?
Low levels of serotonin are linked to depression and anxiety disorders, including OCD. Drugs that increase serotonin levels are effective in treating OCD.
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How is dopamine implicated in OCD?
High levels of dopamine are associated with compulsive behaviours, such as hand washing.
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What is the role of the orbital prefrontal cortex (OFC) in OCD?
The OFC converts sensory information into thoughts and actions and sends signals about potential hazards to the thalamus.
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The OFC converts sensory information into thoughts and actions and sends signals about potential hazards to the thalamus.
The caudate nucleus suppresses minor or unimportant ‘worry’ signals, preventing them from reaching the thalamus.
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What happens when the caudate nucleus is damaged?
When damaged, the caudate nucleus fails to suppress minor or unimportant ‘worry’ signals, allowing unnecessary thoughts and impulses to reach the thalamus.
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What is the ‘worry circuit’ in the brain?
The ‘worry circuit’ involves the OFC sending signals to the thalamus, which are suppressed by the caudate nucleus if they are not serious. When the caudate nucleus is damaged, these signals are not suppressed, leading to reinforced beliefs that these thoughts need immediate responses.
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What supporting evidence is there for the biological explanation of OCD from twin studies?
Nestadt et al (2010) found that identical (MZ) twins had a concordance rate of 68% for OCD compared to 31% for non-identical (DZ) twins, suggesting a genetic link to OCD. However, the fact that concordance rates are not 100% indicates that environmental factors also play a role.
231
What did Nestadt et al (2000) find in family studies regarding OCD?
They found that people with a first-degree relative with OCD were five times more likely to develop the illness themselves compared to the general population, supporting the biological explanation of OCD.
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How do anti-depressants support the biological explanation of OCD?
Anti-depressants, which increase serotonin levels, are effective in reducing OCD symptoms. Soomro et al (2009) found that SSRIs were significantly more effective than placebos in treating OCD, supporting the role of abnormal neurotransmitter levels in OCD.
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What did Menzies (2007) find regarding the role of the OFC in OCD?
Menzies conducted MRI scans and found that OCD patients and their immediate family members had reduced grey matter in the OFC, supporting the view that differences in this brain region are inherited and may contribute to OCD. However, the specific genes causing this reduction in grey matter have not been identified, limiting the predictive value of the genetic explanation.
234
Why might the diathesis-stress model be better at explaining the cause of OCD than the biological explanation alone?
235
Why might the diathesis-stress model be better at explaining the cause of OCD than the biological explanation alone?
The diathesis-stress model acknowledges both genetic and environmental factors. It suggests that individual genes create a vulnerability for OCD, but the development of the disorder depends on environmental factors. Cromer et al (2007) found that over half of OCD patients had experienced a traumatic life event, and OCD was more severe in those with multiple traumatic events, supporting this model.
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What type of antidepressant is commonly used to treat the symptoms of OCD?
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).
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What type of antidepressant is commonly used to treat the symptoms of OCD?
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).
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How are low levels of serotonin associated with mental disorders?
Low levels of serotonin are associated with both depression and OCD.
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How do SSRIs work to treat OCD?
SSRIs prevent the reabsorption of serotonin by the presynaptic neuron, allowing more serotonin to stay in the synapse longer, which helps stimulate the postsynaptic neuron and compensates for the deficiency in the serotonin system.
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How do SSRIs help with OCD?
SSRIs help reduce the anxiety associated with OCD and ‘normalise’ the worry circuit by increasing the duration serotonin stays in the synapse.
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What type of drugs are commonly used to reduce anxiety in OCD patients?
Benzodiazepines (e.g., Valium).
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What type of drugs are commonly used to reduce anxiety in OCD patients?
Benzodiazepines (e.g., Valium).
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How do benzodiazepines work to reduce anxiety?
They increase the activity of the neurotransmitter GABA, which has a quietening effect on neurons in the brain, helping to slow down brain activity.
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What effect does GABA have on neurons?
GABA has a quietening effect, making it harder for neurons to be stimulated by other neurotransmitters, thus slowing down their activity.
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How does GABA work in the synapse?
GABA is released by the presynaptic neuron, locks onto receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, opens a channel that increases the flow of chloride ions into the neuron, reducing its activity and anxiety.
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What are SNRIs and how do they work?
SNRIs (Serotonin Noradrenaline Reuptake Inhibitors) work by preventing the reuptake of both serotonin and noradrenaline, increasing their levels and reducing anxiety.
247
What are SNRIs and how do they work?
SNRIs (Serotonin Noradrenaline Reuptake Inhibitors) work by preventing the reuptake of both serotonin and noradrenaline, increasing their levels and reducing anxiety.
248
What are tricyclics and how do they compare to SNRIs?
Tricyclics are an older class of drugs that work in the same manner as SNRIs but have more severe side effects.
249
What are tricyclics and how do they compare to SNRIs?
Tricyclics are an older class of drugs that work in the same manner as SNRIs but have more severe side effects.
250
What is one strength of drug therapy in treating OCD?
There is clear evidence for its effectiveness in reducing the symptoms of OCD.
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What did Soomro et al. (2009) find in their review of studies on SSRIs and placebos in OCD treatment?
They found that SSRIs were significantly more effective than placebos in treating OCD.
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What did Kahn et al. (1986) discover in their study comparing placebos and benzodiazepines (BZs) in 250 patients?
They found that BZs were significantly superior to placebos in treating anxiety.
253
Why is drug therapy considered cost-effective compared to psychological treatments?
Drug therapy does not require a trained therapist and is less disruptive to patients’ lives.
254
How do drugs help patients with OCD compared to psychological therapies like CBT?
Drugs allow patients to reduce their symptoms with minimal effort, saving time and money.
255
What is a recommended approach according to Koran (2007) for treating OCD?
Psychotherapies such as CBT should be tried first because they address the root cause of OCD.
256
Why are drugs considered a short-term solution for OCD?
Drugs treat the symptoms rather than the root cause, and patients often relapse after stopping medication
257
What are common side effects of SSRIs?
Blurred vision, indigestion, and loss of sex drive. Serious side effects can include hallucinations, erection problems, and raised blood pressure.
258
Why are benzodiazepines (BZs) usually prescribed for short-term treatment?
BZs are highly addictive and can cause increased aggression and long-term memory impairments.
259
Why are benzodiazepines (BZs) usually prescribed for short-term treatment?
BZs are highly addictive and can cause increased aggression and long-term memory impairments.
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How do side effects impact the effectiveness of drug treatments for OCD?
Side effects often lead patients to stop taking the medication, diminishing the effectiveness of drug treatments.
