Research methods Flashcards
1
Q
What is the purpose of an aim in psychological research?
A
An aim is a general statement that outlines what the researcher plans to investigate,
often developed from theories and previous research.
2
Q
What is the difference between a directional and non-directional hypothesis?
A
A directional hypothesis predicts the direction of the relationship between variables,
while a non-directional hypothesis simply predicts that a relationship exists without specifying its direction.
3
Q
What are extraneous and confounding variables?
A
Extraneous variables affect the DV but do not vary systematically with the IV.
Confounding variables do vary with the IV,
making it unclear if the IV or the confounding variable caused changes in the DV.
4
Q
How can demand characteristics affect an experiment?
A
Demand characteristics may cause participants to change their behavior based on what they believe the study aims to find,
either trying to help the researcher (please-U effect) or sabotage the study (screw-U effect).
5
Q
What are the types of experimental methods?
A
Laboratory, field, quasi, and natural experiments.
6
Q
What are the strengths of laboratory experiments?
A
High control over variables and replication are possible due to the controlled environment.
7
Q
What are the limitations of natural experiments?
A
Difficult to replicate and control extraneous variables, reducing generalisability.
8
Q
What are the strengths and limitations of random sampling?
A
Strength: Reduces researcher bias. Limitation: Time-consuming and may result in an unrepresentative sample.
9
Q
What is opportunity sampling?
A
Opportunity sampling involves selecting participants who are readily available and willing to take part at the time of the study.
It is quick and easy but may not be representative of the wider population.
10
Q
What is a key strength of opportunity sampling?
A
The main strength of opportunity sampling is that it is quick, convenient,
and cost-effective, as participants are selected based on availability.
11
Q
What is a major limitation of opportunity sampling?
A
A major limitation of opportunity sampling is that it is prone to bias and lacks representativeness, making it difficult to generalize findings to the wider population.
12
Q
What is random sampling?
A
Random sampling is a technique where every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected,
reducing researcher bias.
13
Q
What is a strength of random sampling?
A
Random sampling reduces the likelihood of bias,
making the sample more likely to be representative of the target population.
14
Q
What is a limitation of random sampling?
A
A limitation of random sampling is that it can be time-consuming and requires a complete list of the population,
which is not always practical.
15
Q
What is systematic sampling?
A
Systematic sampling involves selecting participants using a fixed interval from a larger population (e.g., every 10th person on a list).
16
Q
What is a strength of systematic sampling?
A
Systematic sampling is simple to implement and avoids researcher bias,
as participants are selected using a predetermined system.
17
Q
What is a limitation of systematic sampling?
A
A limitation of systematic sampling is that it may still produce a biased sample if the list from which participants are selected is ordered in a way that introduces bias.
18
Q
What is stratified sampling?
A
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subgroups (strata) based on key characteristics (e.g., age, gender)
and then randomly selecting participants from each stratum in proportion to their representation in the population.
19
Q
What is a strength of stratified sampling?
A
Stratified sampling ensures that different subgroups are proportionally represented,
which increases the generalisability of the results.
20
Q
What is a limitation of stratified sampling?
A
Stratified sampling is time-consuming,
as it requires the identification of relevant subgroups and random selection from each,
making it less practical in some situations.
21
Q
What is volunteer sampling?
A
Volunteer sampling involves participants choosing to take part in a study,
typically in response to an advertisement or request from the researcher.
22
Q
What is a strength of volunteer sampling?
A
A strength of volunteer sampling is that it is easy to obtain a sample,
as participants are self-selected and motivated to participate, which can lead to higher cooperation.
23
Q
What is a limitation of volunteer sampling?
A
A limitation of volunteer sampling is that it often results in volunteer bias,
as participants may have characteristics that differ from the general population,
reducing representativeness.
24
Q
What is a laboratory experiment?
A
A laboratory experiment takes place in a controlled, artificial environment
where the researcher can manipulate the IV and control extraneous variables,
allowing for high internal validity.
25
What is a strength of laboratory experiments?
Laboratory experiments offer a high level of control over variables,
allowing for accurate conclusions about cause and effect and easier replication of the study.
26
What is a limitation of laboratory experiments?
A limitation of laboratory experiments is low ecological validity,
as the artificial environment may not reflect real-life situations,
making it difficult to generalize the findings.
27
What is a field experiment?
A field experiment is conducted in a natural setting
where the researcher still manipulates the IV but has less control over extraneous variables,
providing more ecological validity than laboratory experiments.
28
What is a limitation of field experiments?
A limitation of field experiments is the reduced control over extraneous variables,
which may affect the reliability and accuracy of conclusions regarding cause and effect.
28
What is a strength of field experiments?
Field experiments have higher ecological validity than laboratory experiments
because participants are in their natural environment,
which may lead to more natural behavior.
29
What is a natural experiment?
A natural experiment occurs when the IV changes naturally,
without intervention by the researcher.
The researcher simply observes the effect on the DV,
often in real-world settings.
30
What is a strength of natural experiments?
Natural experiments are useful for studying variables
that cannot be ethically or practically manipulated (e.g., natural disasters),
and they often have high ecological validity.
31
What is a limitation of natural experiments?
A limitation of natural experiments is the lack of control over the IV and extraneous variables,
making it harder to establish a clear cause-and-effect relationship.
32
What is a quasi-experiment?
In a quasi-experiment,
the IV is naturally occurring and cannot be manipulated by the researcher (e.g., age, gender).
Participants cannot be randomly allocated to conditions.
33
What is a strength of quasi-experiments?
A strength of quasi-experiments is that they can study naturally occurring variables,
especially those that cannot be ethically manipulated,
while still allowing for control over some variables.
34
What is a limitation of quasi-experiments?
A limitation of quasi-experiments is the inability to randomly allocate participants to conditions,
which increases the risk of confounding variables affecting the results.
35
What are extraneous variables?
Extraneous variables are any variables other than the IV that could affect the DV if not properly controlled.
They are nuisance variables that make it harder to detect the effect of the IV.
36
What is the difference between extraneous and confounding variables?
Extraneous variables do not vary systematically with the IV but can obscure results,
while confounding variables are variables other than the IV that systematically affect the DV,
making it difficult to know if the IV or the confounding variable caused the change.
37
How can extraneous variables be controlled?
Extraneous variables can be controlled by randomization,
standardisation of procedures, or by removing their influence entirely
(e.g., using a controlled environment).
38
Why are confounding variables problematic in experiments?
Confounding variables are problematic because they undermine the internal validity of an experiment,
making it unclear whether the IV or the confounding variable caused changes in the DV.
39
What is an example of an extraneous variable in an experiment?
An example of an extraneous variable is the time of day participants complete a memory task,
which may affect their performance independently of the IV being studied.
40
What is an example of a confounding variable in an experiment?
An example of a confounding variable is the intelligence of participants in a study measuring the effect of sleep on cognitive performance.
If not controlled, differences in intelligence may affect performance, not just the amount of sleep.
41
What are demand characteristics?
Demand characteristics are cues in an experimental situation that make participants aware of the purpose of the study or the behavior expected of them,
which may cause them to change their behavior
42
How can demand characteristics be minimized in experiments?
Demand characteristics can be minimized through the use of single-blind procedures,
where participants are unaware of the specific aim of the study, or by using deception followed by a debrief.
43
What are investigator effects?
Investigator effects occur when a researcher’s behavior, expectations, or presence unintentionally influences the outcome of an experiment,
potentially skewing the results.
44
How can investigator effects be controlled?
Investigator effects can be controlled using double-blind procedures,
where neither the participants nor the researcher know which participants are in the experimental or control group,
reducing bias.
45
What is randomisation in experiments?
Randomisation is the use of chance to determine the order of conditions, the selection of participants,
or the allocation to groups, ensuring that extraneous variables are distributed evenly across conditions.
46
Why is randomisation important in psychological research?
Randomisation is important because it helps ensure that participant characteristics and extraneous variables are evenly distributed across experimental conditions,
increasing the internal validity of the study.
47
What is standardisation in experiments?
Standardisation refers to ensuring that all participants experience the same procedures,
conditions, and instructions in an experiment,
which reduces the potential influence of extraneous variables.
48
How does standardisation improve the reliability of an experiment?
Standardisation improves reliability by ensuring that the procedures are consistent across all participants and conditions,
making it easier to replicate the study and obtain similar results.
49
What is the difference between randomisation and standardisation?
Randomisation is the use of chance to eliminate bias (e.g., random allocation),
while standardisation ensures consistency across experimental conditions (e.g., identical instructions),
both aiming to reduce extraneous variables.
50
How can randomisation be applied to the presentation of stimuli in an experiment?
Randomisation can be applied by presenting stimuli (e.g., words in a memory test)
in a random order for each participant, preventing order effects from influencing the results.
51
What is the aim of a study in psychological research?
The aim is a general statement outlining what the researcher intends to investigate,
such as the relationship between variables or the effects of an intervention.
52
What is a hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a precise, testable prediction about the expected outcome of an experiment,
which states the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
53
What is independent groups design?
Independent groups design involves using different participants in each condition of the experiment.
Each group is exposed to only one level of the independent variable (IV).
54
What is a strength of independent groups design?
A strength of independent groups design is that it avoids order effects (e.g., practice or fatigue),
as participants only take part in one condition.
55
What is a limitation of independent groups design?
A limitation of independent groups design is that participant variables (individual differences) may affect the results,
as different participants are used in each condition.
56
How can participant variables be controlled in independent groups design?
Participant variables can be controlled through random allocation,
which ensures that each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any condition,
reducing bias.
57
What is repeated measures design?
Repeated measures design involves using the same participants in all conditions of the experiment,
where each participant experiences every level of the independent variable (IV).
58
What is a strength of repeated measures design?
A strength of repeated measures design is that participant variables are controlled,
as the same participants take part in all conditions, reducing individual differences.
59
What is a limitation of repeated measures design?
A limitation of repeated measures design is the possibility of order effects,
such as practice or fatigue, which can affect participants' performance across conditions.
60
How can order effects be controlled in repeated measures design?
Order effects can be controlled by counterbalancing,
where participants are randomly divided into groups,
and the order in which they experience the conditions is varied.
61
What is counterbalancing in repeated measures design?
Counterbalancing is a technique used to control order effects by alternating the order in which participants experience the experimental conditions.
This ensures that any order effects are evenly distributed across conditions.
62
What is matched pairs design?
Matched pairs design involves pairing participants based on similar characteristics
(e.g., age, intelligence)
and randomly assigning each pair to different conditions of the experiment.
63
What is a strength of matched pairs design?
A strength of matched pairs design is that it controls for participant variables,
as participants in each pair are matched on key characteristics, reducing individual differences.
64
What is a limitation of matched pairs design?
A limitation of matched pairs design is that it can be time-consuming and difficult to find and match participants on all relevant characteristics.
65
How can the matching process be improved in matched pairs design?
The matching process can be improved by using objective criteria (e.g., scores on a pre-test)
to match participants on specific variables relevant to the study.
66
What is a key strength of using independent groups design?
A key strength of independent groups design is that participants only take part in one condition, which eliminates the risk of order effects such as practice or fatigue.
67
What is a key limitation of repeated measures design?
A key limitation of repeated measures design is that order effects may occur,
where participants' performance is affected by the sequence in which they experience the conditions.
68
Why might a researcher choose matched pairs design over independent groups design?
A researcher might choose matched pairs design over independent groups design because it controls for participant variables
by matching participants on key characteristics,
leading to more reliable results.
69
What is a major challenge of using matched pairs design?
A major challenge of using matched pairs design is the difficulty and time required to find participants who match on all relevant characteristics.
70
How does the choice of experimental design affect the results of a study?
The choice of experimental design affects the control over variables, the potential for bias
(e.g., participant variables or order effects),
and the overall validity and reliability of the study.
71
What factors should a researcher consider when choosing an experimental design?
A researcher should consider factors such as the likelihood of participant variables,
the risk of order effects, the availability of participants,
and the need for controlling variables when choosing an experimental design.
72
Why is random allocation important in independent groups design?
Random allocation is important in independent groups design
because it ensures that participant characteristics are evenly distributed across conditions,
reducing the risk of bias due to participant variables.
73
When is repeated measures design most suitable?
Repeated measures design is most suitable when the study involves testing the same participants under different conditions,
particularly when the aim is to control for participant variables.
74
What is a single-blind procedure?
A single-blind procedure is when participants are unaware of whether they are in the experimental or control group,
or the aim of the study, to reduce demand characteristics.
75
Why are single-blind procedures used in psychological research?
Single-blind procedures are used to minimize the influence of demand characteristics,
where participants might alter their behavior based on what they believe the study is about.
76
What is a key strength of single-blind procedures?
A key strength of single-blind procedures is that they help reduce demand characteristics,
leading to more natural and unbiased behavior from participants.
77
What is a limitation of single-blind procedures?
A limitation of single-blind procedures is that while participants are unaware of the study's aim,
the researcher still knows the conditions, which may lead to investigator effects.
78
In what types of studies are single-blind procedures commonly used?
Single-blind procedures are commonly used in drug trials or experiments
where knowing the condition (e.g., placebo vs. treatment) might affect participants' responses.
79
What is a double-blind procedure?
A double-blind procedure is when neither the participants nor the researchers know which group (experimental or control) the participants are in,
reducing both demand characteristics and investigator effects
80
Why are double-blind procedures important in psychological research?
Double-blind procedures are important because they prevent both participants and researchers from influencing the results,
reducing both demand characteristics and investigator bias.
81
What is a key strength of double-blind procedures?
A key strength of double-blind procedures is that they significantly reduce the risk of investigator effects,
as the researcher does not know which group participants are in, leading to more objective data collection.
82
How do double-blind procedures reduce demand characteristics?
Double-blind procedures reduce demand characteristics by ensuring that participants do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group,
preventing them from altering their behavior based on their expectations.
83
What is a limitation of double-blind procedures?
A limitation of double-blind procedures is that they can be more complex and time-consuming to implement,
especially in studies requiring specialized roles for researchers and participants.
84
In what types of research are double-blind procedures most commonly used?
Double-blind procedures are most commonly used in clinical trials,
particularly in drug testing, to prevent bias in the administration and reporting of results.
85
What is the main advantage of using a single-blind procedure over a standard experiment?
The main advantage of using a single-blind procedure is that it reduces demand characteristics,
leading to more valid results by preventing participants from changing their behavior based on the study's aims.
86
How does a double-blind procedure help control investigator effects?
A double-blind procedure helps control investigator effects by ensuring the researcher does not know which participants are in the experimental or control group,
preventing them from unintentionally influencing the results.
87
Why might a single-blind procedure not fully prevent bias in a study?
A single-blind procedure might not fully prevent bias because the researcher is still aware of the group assignments,
which could lead to subtle investigator effects influencing the results.
88
What is the main drawback of using double-blind procedures?
The main drawback of using double-blind procedures is that they can be logistically challenging and require additional resources to ensure that both participants and researchers are unaware of group allocations.
89
When would a single-blind procedure be more appropriate than a double-blind procedure?
A single-blind procedure might be more appropriate when the researcher needs to know group assignments for practical reasons,
but still wants to minimize participant bias, such as in simple behavioral studies.
90
How are single-blind procedures used in placebo-controlled trials?
In placebo-controlled trials,
single-blind procedures are used by giving participants either a real treatment or a placebo without telling them which one they are receiving,
reducing bias in their responses.
91
How do double-blind procedures enhance the validity of drug trials?
Double-blind procedures enhance the validity of drug trials
by ensuring that neither the participants nor the administering researchers know who is receiving the real drug or the placebo,
reducing both participant and researcher biases.
92
Why are double-blind procedures considered the gold standard in clinical trials?
Double-blind procedures are considered the gold standard in clinical trials because they prevent both placebo effects and researcher bias,
leading to more reliable and valid conclusions about the treatment's effectiveness.
93
What is observational design in psychological research?
Observational design refers to the method used to systematically observe and record behavior in a study,
without manipulating variables, allowing researchers to study behavior in natural or controlled environments.
94
What is a naturalistic observation?
A naturalistic observation involves observing behavior in a natural environment where the behavior would normally occur,
without any intervention or control by the researcher.
95
What is a strength of naturalistic observation?
A strength of naturalistic observation is high ecological validity,
as the behavior is studied in a real-world setting, making the findings more generalizable to everyday life.
96
What is a limitation of naturalistic observation?
A limitation of naturalistic observation is the lack of control over extraneous variables,
which can make it difficult to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
97
What is a controlled observation?
A controlled observation takes place in a structured environment where the researcher has control over some variables,
allowing for more systematic observation and recording of behavior.
98
What is a strength of controlled observation?
A strength of controlled observation is that it allows the researcher to control extraneous variables,
improving the reliability and replicability of the findings.
99
What is a limitation of controlled observation?
A limitation of controlled observation is lower ecological validity,
as the behavior may not reflect what would occur in a natural setting due to the artificial environment.
100
What is an overt observation?
An overt observation is when participants are aware that they are being observed,
which can affect their behavior due to the Hawthorne effect or demand characteristics.
101
What is a strength of overt observation?
A strength of overt observation is that it is ethically sound because participants have given informed consent,
ensuring that the study complies with ethical guidelines
102
What is a limitation of overt observation?
A limitation of overt observation is that participants' awareness of being observed may lead to demand characteristics or altered behavior,
reducing the validity of the findings.
103
What is a covert observation?
A covert observation is when participants are unaware that they are being observed,
allowing the researcher to study natural, unaltered behavior.
104
What is a strength of covert observation?
A strength of covert observation is that it reduces demand characteristics,
as participants do not know they are being observed, leading to more natural behavior.
105
What is a limitation of covert observation?
A limitation of covert observation is the ethical issue of lack of informed consent,
as participants are unaware they are being observed, raising concerns about privacy and confidentiality.
106
What is a participant observation?
In a participant observation, the researcher becomes actively involved in the group or situation being studied,
observing behavior from within the group.
107
What is a strength of participant observation?
A strength of participant observation is that the researcher gains a deeper understanding of the participants'
behavior and the context, leading to richer, more detailed data.
108
What is a limitation of participant observation?
A limitation of participant observation is the risk of researcher bias,
as the researcher may become too involved and lose objectivity, affecting the validity of the findings.
109
What is a non-participant observation?
In a non-participant observation, the researcher observes behavior from a distance,
without becoming actively involved in the group or situation being studied
110
What is a strength of non-participant observation?
A strength of non-participant observation is that the researcher can remain objective and detached,
reducing the likelihood of researcher bias affecting the results.
111
What is a limitation of non-participant observation?
A limitation of non-participant observation is that the researcher may miss out on important details
or context because they are not directly involved in the group or situation.
112
What is a structured observation?
A structured observation involves using a predefined system to observe and record behavior,
such as a behavior checklist or coding system, which makes the data easier to quantify and analyze.
113
What is a strength of structured observation?
A strength of structured observation is that it allows for more systematic and objective recording of behavior,
making the data easier to compare and analyze.
114
What is a limitation of structured observation?
A limitation of structured observation is that it may oversimplify complex behaviors by focusing
only on predefined categories, leading to a loss of richness in the data.
115
What is an unstructured observation?
An unstructured observation involves observing and recording behavior in a free-form manner,
without predefined categories, allowing for more flexibility in capturing the full range of behaviors.
116
What is a strength of unstructured observation?
A strength of unstructured observation is that it provides richer, more detailed data,
as the researcher can record all aspects of behavior without being constrained by predefined categories.
117
What is a limitation of unstructured observation?
A limitation of unstructured observation is that the data may be harder to quantify and analyze,
and the researcher may be prone to bias in deciding which behaviors to focus on.
118
What is event sampling in observational research?
Event sampling involves recording every instance of a particular behavior whenever it occurs during the observation period,
which is useful for studying infrequent behaviors.
119
What is a strength of event sampling?
A strength of event sampling is that it ensures that every occurrence of the target behavior is recorded,
providing comprehensive data on that specific behavior.
120
What is a limitation of event sampling?
A limitation of event sampling is that it may overlook other important behaviors if the focus is too narrow,
potentially missing out on context or related behaviors.
121
What is time sampling in observational research?
Time sampling involves recording behavior at regular intervals (e.g., every 10 minutes) during the observation period,
which can provide an overview of behavior patterns over time.
122
What is a strength of time sampling?
A strength of time sampling is that it provides a snapshot of behavior at regular intervals,
which can help identify patterns or trends over time.
123
What is a limitation of time sampling?
A limitation of time sampling is that important behaviors that occur between the sampling intervals may be missed,
leading to incomplete data
124
What is inter-observer reliability in observational studies?
Inter-observer reliability refers to the extent to which two or more observers consistently record and interpret behaviors in the same way during an observational study.
125
How is inter-observer reliability assessed?
Inter-observer reliability is assessed by comparing the observations of different observers to check for consistency,
often using a correlation coefficient or percentage agreement.
126
How can inter-observer reliability be improved?
Inter-observer reliability can be improved by clearly defining behavior categories and providing thorough training for observers to ensure they use the same criteria when recording behavior.
127
What is a correlation in psychological research?
A correlation measures the relationship between two co-variables,
indicating whether changes in one variable are associated with changes in another.
128
What is a positive correlation?
A positive correlation occurs when both variables increase together (e.g., as one variable increases, the other also increases).
129
What is a negative correlation?
A negative correlation occurs when one variable increases as the other decreases (e.g., as one variable goes up, the other goes down).
130
What does a zero correlation indicate?
A zero correlation indicates that there is no relationship between the two variables;
changes in one variable do not predict changes in the other.
131
What is a correlation coefficient?
A correlation coefficient is a numerical value between -1 and +1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.
132
What does a correlation coefficient of +1 indicate?
A correlation coefficient of +1 indicates a perfect positive correlation,
meaning that as one variable increases, the other increases in a perfectly predictable way.
133
What does a correlation coefficient of -1 indicate?
a correlation coefficient of -1 indicates a perfect negative correlation,
meaning that as one variable increases, the other decreases in a perfectly predictable way.
134
What does a correlation coefficient of 0 indicate?
A correlation coefficient of 0 indicates no relationship between the variables;
changes in one variable do not predict changes in the other.
135
What is a key strength of using correlations in research?
A key strength of correlations is that they allow researchers to identify relationships between variables without needing to manipulate them,
making them useful for studying variables that cannot be ethically or practically manipulated.
136
What is a key limitation of correlations?
A key limitation of correlations is that they cannot establish cause and effect;
even if two variables are related, it does not mean that one causes the other.
137
Why can't correlations establish causality?
Correlations cannot establish causality because there may be a third variable (confounding variable) that influences both variables,
creating the illusion of a direct relationship.
138
What is the third variable problem in correlational research?
The third variable problem occurs when an unmeasured variable is responsible for the relationship between the two variables being studied,
making it difficult to determine if the correlation is due to direct causation.
139
What is an advantage of using correlational research over experimental methods?
An advantage of correlational research is that it allows the study of variables in natural settings without manipulation,
which is particularly useful for studying ethical or practical issues that cannot be experimentally manipulated.
140
What does a strong positive correlation look like on a scatterplot?
A strong positive correlation on a scatterplot would show data points closely clustered along a line sloping upwards,
indicating that as one variable increases, the other also consistently increases.
141
What does a weak correlation indicate about the relationship between variables?
A weak correlation indicates that while there is some relationship between the variables,
it is not very strong, meaning that changes in one variable are not consistently associated with changes in the other.
142
What does a scatterplot look like when there is no correlation between variables?
When there is no correlation, the data points on a scatterplot will appear randomly scattered,
with no clear pattern or trend.
143
How do you interpret a correlation coefficient of 0.5?
A correlation coefficient of 0.5 indicates a moderate positive relationship between the two variables,
meaning that as one variable increases, the other tends to increase, but not perfectly.
144
How do you interpret a correlation coefficient of -0.4?
A correlation coefficient of -0.4 indicates a moderate negative relationship,
meaning that as one variable increases, the other tends to decrease, but not perfectly.
