psychopathology

Question 1

What is deviation from social norms?

Answer 1

abnormality when a person acts in the way society doesn’t expect of them

Question 2

What is statistical infrequency as a definition for abnormality

Answer 2

• A persons behaviour is classified as abnormal if it is statistically unusual
  -More than 2 standard deviations away from the bell curve

Question 3

Strengths of statistical infrequency

Answer 3

-Objective
-Used in clinical diagnoses of mental health disorders as a comparison with a baseline or ‘normal’ value

Question 4

limitations of statistical infrequency

Answer 4

-Makes the assumption the abnormality is automatically negative, this would categorize someone with a high IQ as abnormal, even though they dont require treatment

Question 5

strength of failure to function adequately as a definition for abnormality

Answer 5

-takes into account patients perspective
-diagnosis will be based on patients view as well as psychiatrists
- the diagnosis isnt constrained to statistical limits, because someone could still have mental health problems even if it isnt statistically infrequent

Question 6

Abnormality can be defined as ‘the failure to function adequately’.
Outline this definition of abnormality (3)

Answer 6

• Failure to function adequately (FFA) refers to abnormality that prevent the person from carrying out the range of behaviours that society would expect from them
• such as getting out of bed each day, keeping a job etc.
• Rosenhan & Seligman suggested a range of criteria that are typical of FFA. - These include observer discomfort, unpredictability and irrationality among others.

Question 7

Evaluate FFA as a definition for abnormality (3)

Answer 7

-Cultural relativism – what is considered adequate in one culture might not be so in another.
-FFA might not be linked to abnormality but to other factors. Failure to keep a job may be due to the economic situation not to psychopathology.
- FFA is context dependent; not eating can be seen as failing to function adequately but prisoners on hunger strikes making a protest can be seen in a different light.

Question 8

what did Rosenhan and Seligman have as the criteria for FFA

Answer 8

-observer discomfort
-irrationality
-unpredictability

Question 9

Outline deviation from social norms as a definition for abnormality

Answer 9

• Deviation from ideal mental health means mental illness is defined by the absence of physical health signs (Jahoda)
• A persons thinking or behaviour is abnormal if it violates what is expected in a certain social situation
  -makes others feel their behaviour is uncomfortable to witness or incromprehensible

Question 10

limitations of deviation from social norms as a definition for abnormality

Answer 10

• it is culturally relative, cultural variation may mean someone is unecessarily labelled as abnormal
  -context dependant as social norms vary over time, e.g. homosexuality

Question 11

what is Jahoda’s 6 criteria for deviation from ideal mental health

Answer 11

ABSENCE of any 6:
1. resistance to stress
2. growth, development, or self actualisation
3. high self esteem and strong sense of identity
4. autonomy, being independant and self reliant
5. normal levels of motivation
6. accurate perception of reality

Question 12

limitations of DFIMH (jahoda) as a definition of abnormality

Answer 12

-unrealistic as very small amount of population will meet all 6 criteria
- context and society dependant, e.g. in the pandemic or a war majority of people wouldnt meet all of these criteria
-culturally relative, e.g. strong sense of identity may be negatively viewed in collectivist cultures

Question 13

what are the 6 characteristics of a phobia

Answer 13

• Panic (hypothalamus triggering increased activity in sympathetic branch of autonomic NS)
  -Avoidance (negatively reinforced because everytime the phobic stimulus is avoided the brain feels rewarded)
  -Endurance (heightened levels of anxiety for a prolonged period of time around phobic stimulus)
  -selective attention (person remains focused on phobic stimulus)
  -irrational beliefs (results in unreasonable responses of anxiety)
  -cognitive distortions (person doesn’t perceive the stimulus accurately)

Question 14

what are the behavioural characteristics of depression?

Answer 14

• Changed activity levels (e.g. or psychomotor agitation or inability to get out of bed)
• Agression (towards self or others may be verbal or physical)
• Change in sleep habits e.g. insomnia or lethargia
• change in eating pattern

Question 15

what are the emotional characteristics of depression

Answer 15

-low self esteem
-prolonged low mood
- high levels of anger

Question 16

what are the cognitive characteristics of depression

Answer 16

-absolutist thinking
-selective attention toward negative events
-poor concentration

Question 17

What are behavioural characteristics of OCD

Answer 17

-Compulsions (in response to the anxiety from repetitive intrusive thoughts around the stimulus)
-Avoidance behaviour (which is negatively reinforced because by avoiding the stimulus the anxiety is avoided)

Question 18

What are emotional characteristics of OCD

Answer 18

-Guilt, depression (due to repetitive acts/compulsions)
-Anxiety and despair (Because there is awareness the obsessions are irrational but will inevitably lead to the compulsions)

Question 19

what are cognitive characteristics of OCD

Answer 19

• Acknowledgement that the anxiety is excessive and irrational
• Obsessive thoughts

Question 20

who suggested that phobias are acquired through classical conditioning

Answer 20

mowrer

Question 21

What is Mowrers explanation of phobias

Answer 21

• Acquired through classical conditioning
  -Maintained through operant conditioning

Question 22

what study supports mowrers explanation of phobias

Answer 22

Little Albert
-He associated the loud bang with a white rat because they were presented at the same time
-He was exposed to a white rat (NS) and at the same time as a loud bang (UCS) which led to him having an association with the rat (CS) and fear of it (CR)
-This conditioning led to the same response of other white fluffy things e.g. santa hat

Question 23

how does operant conditioning maintain phobias

Answer 23

-Phobic will avoid the phobic stimulus and the unpleasant feelings associated with it
-By avoiding the unpleasant feelings, the behaviour is negatively reinforced and likely to be repeated, reinforcing the phobia

Question 24

What is a strength of conditioning as an explanation for phobia

Answer 24

-Supported by little albert study
-has practical benefits for treatment e.g. systematic desensitisation
and flooding
-Strong explanatory power

Question 25

what is a limitation of conditioning as an explanation for phobias

Answer 25

-Alternative explanation: Buck -safety is a greater motivator for avoidance behaviour. e.g. social anxiety phobias, some people can go into society with a trusted friend or family member, which shows safety is the motivator

Question 26

What are the 2 main treatments for phobias?

Answer 26

-flooding -systematic desensitisation

Question 27

Describe systematic desensitisation as a treatment for phobia

Answer 27

- Reduces anxiety through gradual exposure to the phobic stimulus - Counterconditioning so a new response to the phobic stimulus is learnt -Patient and therapist create an anxiety hierarchy together where they order events from least to most anxiety inducing (e.g. looking at a picture of a spider to then holding one) -therapist will teach relaxation techniques at each level, with the idea of the patient working through the anxiety hierarchy -the phobia is cured when the patient can remain calm at the highest anxiety level

Question 28

what are positives of systematic desensitisation

Answer 28

-suitable for wide variety of patients including those with learning difficulties, might not be able to do the self evaluation required for CBT for example -more accepted by patients, there has been less refusal and more willing to continue -economically viable because of participant willingness

Question 29

what is flooding as a treatment for phobias strengths+limitations

Answer 29

Behavioural therapy designed to reduce phobic anxiety in one session by exposing the patient to the stimulus immediately secure environment from which the patient can't escape relies on the principle it is physically impossible to maintain heightened anxiety for a prolonged period of time +cost effective because the phobia is cured in one session -less effective for complex phobias

Question 30

what 3 things did Beck cognitive approach propose as things that could lead to depression?

Answer 30

-faulty information processing -negative self schemas -cognitive triad of automatic negative thoughts

Question 31

what is becks cognitive approach to explaining depression

Answer 31

Faulty information processing: - The patient blows small problems out of proportion and focuses on the negatives Negative self schema: -Leads to schema of negative thought processing, assumes everyone else thinks negatively of them, further lowering their self confidence Cognitive triad of automatic negative thoughts: - patient suffers from negative automatic thoughts about their self, others, and the world

Question 32

What is supporting research evidence of Becks cognitive approach to explaining depression?

Answer 32

- Grazioli and Terry -Evaluated 65 pregnant women, they tested their cognitive vulnerability and likelihood of depression before and after birth -There was a correlation between cognitive vulnerability and depression -this supports becks theory

Question 33

what is a strength of the cognitive approach to explaining depression

Answer 33

-The negative schema, irrational thought process and cognitive triad of automatic negative thoughts can be identified easily by professionals and helps treatment and succesful therapy for depression

Question 34

What is Ellis's ABC model in explaining depression?

Answer 34

Ellis proposed that: Activating event (A) leads to an irrational belief (B) which results in an emotional consequence (C) What is interpreted as being an "irrational belief" is how depression is characterised in this model

Question 35

What is a limitation of Becks ABC model in explaining depression

Answer 35

Not applicable to all types of depression as often there isn't an activating event and the depression can appear without cause, so this model could be frustrating to patients as it does not explain their depression the ABC model is limited, at best

Question 36

what is an advantage of becks ABC model in treating depression

Answer 36

-may have value in treating types of depression with an activating event, e.g. reactive depression - provides use in CBT therapy because the irrational beliefs can be identified and challenged, the patient is able to reflect on the cause of their depression recognise their beliefs as irrational

Question 37

Outline the biological approach explanation for OCD

Answer 37

- Diathesis stress model (stress on a gene can trigger that gene to present itself) -Research supporting that it is hereditary is Lewis et al. 37% of his patients with OCD had parents with OCD -OCD is polygenic as there are over 230 genes involved in the development of OCD -These 230 genes are associated with the functioning of neurotransmitters that regulate mood, dopamine and seratonin -Candidate genes increase someones vulnerability to OCD and different variations of OCD can be caused by different genes

Question 38

What is a strength of biological explanation of OCD?

Answer 38

- There is research support for a genetic basis through twin studies -Nesdat et al. twin study of OCD, 68% of identical twins shared OCD, only 31% of non identical shared it -However, this still needs to be paired with a stressor in the environment to cause OCD as stated by diathesis-stress model

Question 39

what are 2 limitations of the biological explanation of OCD

Answer 39

- Too many candidate genes that potentially lead to OCD development make it hard to identify which genes are increasing risk of OCD, this makes it harder for drug treatments to target the genes -ignores environmental factors, Cromer et al found 50% of his patients with OCD had experienced trauma in their life

Question 40

How do SSRI's treat OCD

Answer 40

- Selective seratonin reuptake inhibitors prevent the reuptake and breaking down of seratonin by the presynaptic neurons, this increase seratonin concentration within the synapse, causing the post synaptic neuron to be continually stimulated

Question 41

What is a limitation of biological treatment for OCD

Answer 41

-Medications may have side effects, some patients may be unable to take them for medical reasons or because of these side effects

Question 42

What is a strength of biological treatment for OCD

Answer 42

Cost and time effective way of treating OCD so is a realistic way of treating OCD

Question 43

What are 2 candidate genes for OCD

Answer 43

SERT- regulates seratonin COMT-regulates dopamine production

Question 44

What parts of the brain could be responsible for OCD?

Answer 44

-Basal ganglia -Orbital frontal cortex -Thalamus

Question 45

How could oversensitivity of the Basal ganglia explain OCD?

Answer 45

-This is where psychomotor functions are controlled, and neuroimaging has shown it to be different in people with OCD -Could explain compulsions in OCD because of motor functions e.g. hand washing, checking, all stem from overactivity of basal ganglia

Question 46

How does neuroimaging support neural explanations for OCD?

Answer 46

Neuroimaging has devloped neural explanation of OCD as it has shown people with OCD to have physical brain differences

Question 47

How is the orbital frontal cortex and thalamus different in people with OCD to people without OCD?

Answer 47

-It is overactive in OCD people, the thalamus and OFC work together, they are usually both overactive in someone with OCD, as shown by brain scans -Overactive OFC would mean increased planning to prevent anxiety

Question 48

What is a limitation of sensitivity of basal ganglia as explanation for OCD

Answer 48

Only explains motor functions, e.g. compulsions, and not obsessions

Question 49

What is a limitation of biological treatment for OCD?

Answer 49

-Drug treatments dont work for everyone with OCD, which raises the question if it is neural -Because behaviours are hardwired in the thalamus they can be hard to treat -When patients take the drug treatments, the chemical imbalance is resolved within hours, but improvement in symptoms takes much longer to see

Question 50

Explain 2 limitations of genetic explanations for OCD (4)

Answer 50

1. A limitation of genetic explanations for OCD is that not every individual with OCD has family members or relatives with OCD or anxiety disorders. This shows it cannot be fully due to genetics or every person with OCD would have family members or relatives with OCD, there is no genetic explanation for these cases which is a limitation 2. There is uncertainty in the specific gene that causes OCD as it is believed to be polygenic and could be caused by 230 different genes, research has not shown it to be caused a specific gene. Because a specific gene has not been identified the research is unclear and there hasn’t been a consistent enough trend in a gene to prove that it is one gene, there is only correlation with the SERT and COMT genes but causation hasn’t been proven.