psychopathology Flashcards
(17 cards)
STATISTICAL INFREQUENCY
Ao1:
classified as abnormal if it’s rare statistically unusual. E.g. fear of buttons is statistically infrequent.
Must be clear about how rare a trade needs to be before we classes abnormal
– e.g for IQ only 2% will score below 70, might be diagnosed with IDD.
Ao3
Strength- good real life application, health professionals come to diagnoses and indicate how severe conditions are e.g. depression.
Limitation-some characteristics which is statistically infrequent may be positive/useful, e.g. high IQ over 135
DEVIATION FROM SOCIAL NORMS
Ao1
– Any behaviour which differs from what society expects?
– making collective judgement of society about what is right/acceptable?
– vary from generation and culture.
Ao1
Strength – good real world application. DfSN used in psychiatry to make clinical diagnoses, e.g. antisocial personality disorder (APD).
Limitation – suffers from cultural relativism. E.g. hearing voices from ancestors normal and South African cultures, sign of disorder in UK.
FAILURE TO FUNCTION ADEQUATELY
Ao1
– Fails to function and cope with every day life, e.g. due to personal stress and anxiety from OCD
– includes being unable to hold down job/relationship, or not meet demands e.g. basic hygiene or nutrition
Ao3
Strength – represents sensible threshold for help, considers the patient’s perspective and subjective experience. Only those who really need help or treated, reducing unnecessary labelling of those able to carry on.
Limitation difficult to distinguish between failure to function and simply alternative lifestyle. E.g. travellers (no permanent home/job) would likely be diagnosed as abnormal according to FFA.
DEVIATION FROM IDEAL MENTAL HEALTH
Ao1
Jahoda classification of good mental health:
– no symptoms/distress
– rational, accurate perception of reality
– Can self actualise/self esteem and cope with stress/lack guilt
– independent and can successfully love, work and enjoy life
Ao3
strengths – criteria is broad and comprehensive, covers most reasons why we seek help with mental health. Can be discussed easily with range of health professionals, positive diagnostic criteria which focuses on improvement.
, Around idea which may not apply, particularly self actualisation and independence. E.g. independence of one’s family is very important in Germany but not Italy.
PHOBIAS – BEHAVIOURIST EXPLANATION
Ao1
CHARACTERISTICS
Cognitive: selective attention to focus stimulus, irrational beliefs, cognitive distortions
Behavioural symptoms: panic, avoidance, endurance
Emotional: unreasonable emotional response, anxiety, fear
BEHAVIOURIST EXPLANATION– TWO PROCESS MODEL
– formed through classical conditioning
E.g. little Albert Watson and Rayner
– Maintain through operant conditioning, avoid fear by avoiding phobic stimulus: negative reinforcement
PHOBIAS – BEHAVIOURIST EXPLANATIONS
Ao3
STRENGTHS
- good real world application, has led two different types of exposure therapy.
– Evidence to support link between trauma and phobias. Study found 73% of people with dental phobias had experienced trauma relating to dentistry. Control group no phobia = 21%.
LIMITATIONS:
- ignores the role of cognitive factors, explains behaviours associated with phobia but not irrational fears
– Not a phobia is appear following a traumatic experience, some most common arse snakes/sharks. Unlikely to occur after traumatic experience. Vice versa, not all traumatic experiences lead to phobia.
PHOBIAS – BEHAVIORIST TREATMENTS
Ao1
SYSTEMATIC DESENSITISATION
Main aims:
– Gradually reducing phobic anxiety through cc. (Counter conditioning).
– if someone can relax whilst with phobia they will be cured
three stages:
1) anxiety hierarchy
E.g. photo of clown – meeting clown
2) relaxation techniques
E.g. breathing exercises, mental imagery. Cannot be both frightened and relaxed, “reciprocalinhibition”.
3) exposure to phobic stimulus.
Work up hierarchy slowly , in relaxed state
FLOODING
– Exposing patients to stimulus without gradual buildup, immediate frighting situation. leads to extinction
Two forms:
In vivo (actual/direct)
In vitro (imagined exposure)
– taught relaxation techniques, these applied to most feared situation.
– Cannot maintain fear response for long time (2–3 hours), therefore stop phobic response quickly.
– Prevents reinforcement of phobia through escape/avoidance
PHOBIAS - BEHAVIOURIST TREATMENTS
Ao3
STRENGTHS
– Lots of evidence to support the effectiveness of systematic desensitisation.Gilroy followed 42 people with arachnophobia who had three sessions of SD, compared to control group with basic relaxation therapy. At two intervals after treatment SD group will last fearful.
– Flooding is extremely cost-effective, highly effective compared to cognitive therapies and quick quicker, eradicates symptoms ASAP
LIMITATIONS
– Sometimes treatments only deal with symptoms, not underlying cause of the phobias. Known as symptom substitution, could re occur later often worse than before.
– flooding can be highly traumatic, participants rate as significantly more stressful than SD leads to higher attrition rates than SD .
PHOBIAS - BEHAVIOURIST TREATMENTS
Ao3
STRENGTHS
– Lots of evidence to support the effectiveness of systematic desensitisation.Gilroy followed 42 people with arachnophobia who had three sessions of SD, compared to control group with basic relaxation therapy. At two intervals after treatment SD group will last fearful.
– Flooding is extremely cost-effective, highly effective compared to cognitive therapies and quick quicker, eradicates symptoms ASAP
LIMITATIONS
– Sometimes treatments only deal with symptoms, not underlying cause of the phobias. Known as symptom substitution, could re occur later often worse than before.
– flooding can be highly traumatic, participants rate as significantly more stressful than SD leads to higher attrition rates than SD .
DEPRESSION: COGNITIVE EXPLANATION
Ao1
SYMPTOMS
Cognitive:
– poor concentration
– dwelling on negative
– absolutist thinking
Behavioural:
– Change in activity levels
– disruption to sleep and eating
– aggression and self harm
Emotional:
– lowered mood
– anger
– lowered self-esteem
COGNITIVE EXPLANATION
Beck, mental illness = result of disordered thinking
1) faulty information processing
– fundamental errors in logic, black and white thinking/catastrophizing
– selective attention to negative aspects of a situation
– e.g. doing badly on test, giving up on subject
2)Negative self schema
– Negative package of ideas we have about ourselves.
– interpret all information about ourselves in negative way
3) the negative triad
Negative view of the self
Negative view of the world
Negative view of the future
ELLIS’ ABC MODEL
mental illness = result of a rational thinking
activating event: situation which triggers thought
Belief: thoughts formed by each individual, different depending on if you are rational or not.
Consequence: the behaviours that individuals show as a result of beliefs they hold
DEPRESSION: COGNITIVE EXPLANATION
Ao3
STRENGTHS
– Lots of research support for cognitive theory. Cohen studied the development of 473 adolescents. Those who showed cognitive vulnerabilities = likely to develop depression later in life.
- Real world application: from ABC model Ellis developed REBT where patient/therapist have vigourous argument to alter irrational beliefs.
LIMITATIONS:
– Doesn’t explain all types of depression, some symptoms e.g. extreme Angus/hallucinations/delusions not explained by cognitive. Disregards biological and role of serotonin
– ABC Can only explain reactive depression (triggered by event) not endogenous depression (seems to develop out of nowhere)
DEPRESSION: COGNITIVE TREATMENTS
Ao1
CBT: Beck’s cognitive therapy
– Automatic negative thoughts are identified, goals are set
– therapist uses process of reality testing
– therapist might set homework e.g. if anxious, meet friend for drink
REBT: Ellis’ Therapy
(rational emotional behaviour therapy)
extends ABC to DE
D = dispute to challenge irrational beliefs
E = effect, new beliefs replace irrational thoughts/behaviours
Two types of dispute:
Empirical argument – is there evidence to support belief?
Logical argument – does your belief logically follow on from fact?
DEPRESSION: COGNITIVE TREATMENTS
Ao3
STRENGTHS
– Lots of supporting evidence. March compared CBT with drug therapy on 327 adolescents. 81% CBT improved, 81% drug therapy. Shows just as effective as drugs.
LIMITATIONS
- Not suitable for those with severe depression (no motivation) or learning difficulties.
– has high relapse rate, may only work while in therapy
OCD: BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION
Ao1
CHARACTERISTICS
cognitive:
Obsessive thoughts
Cognitive coping strategies
Insight into excessive anxiety
Behavioural:
Repetitive compulsions
Compulsions reduce anxiety
Avoidance
Emotional:
Anxiety and distress
Accompanying depression
Guilt and discussed
GENETIC EXPLANATIONS
- Lewis found in OCD patients
37% had OCD parents
21% had OCD siblings
- vulnerability to develop but not certainty
5HT1-Dbeta gene
causes reuptake of serotonin
found gene in 2 families, 6/7 had OCD
OCD is polygenic - lots of different candidate genes. Taylor found 230 genes that may be involved.
- aetiologically heterogeneous
NEURAL EXPLANATIONS
neuro chemistry/anatomy
Role of serotonin:
- Low levels = normal mood related messages not passed on, causing low mood and anxiety (OCD symptoms)
-Effectiveness of SSRIs supports this
Brain Structure:
– In OCD patients PFC often functions abnormally (overactive) leading to compulsive behaviour
– LPHG associated with processing unpleasant emotions, functions abnormally/gets overwhelmed in OCD patients
OCD: BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS
Ao3
GENETIC:
strength- Nestadt reviewed twin studies, found 68% MZ twins shared OCD, 31% DZ twins.
limitation- doesn’t take into account environmental factors, needs a trigger: diathesis-stress model. cromer found 1/2 had had traumatic event.
NEURAL
limitation- not clear which neural mechanisms involved. has high comorbidity with depression. could mean serotonin affects depression not OCD
- cause vs correlation- don’t know if abnormal functioning causes OCD or if OCD causes structural changes to brain
OCD: BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS
Ao1
SSRIs e.g. Prozac
- assumes a chemical imbalance, either increases/decreases neurotransmitters in brain
- SSRIs work by preventing serotonin being reabsorbed into pre-synaptic neuron.
Often used alongside CBT. Drugs reduce emotional symptoms, so patient can engage more in therapy.
Alternatives to SSRIs
- Tricyclics: same effect/process as SSRIs but have more severe side effects
- SNRIs: increase serotonin and noradrenaline levels. for patients that don’t respond to SSRIs.
OCD: BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS
Ao3
STRENGTHS
- cost effective, thousands of tablets can be manufactured at a time. can feel effects faster than lengthy CBT sessions
- good results- in a meta analysis 17 studies showed better drug results than placebo
LIMITATIONS
- may have side effects. eg. heart problems, blurred vision, indigestion
- controversial/unreliable evidence: much evidence/research published by drug companies who want to sell drugs
