psychopathology Flashcards
(147 cards)
1
Q
What is cultural relativism in the context of abnormality?
A
Behaviour cannot be judged properly unless viewed in the context of the culture in which it originates.
2
Q
Why should Western ideals not be used to judge other cultures?
A
Behaviour should be judged relative to the specific culture.
3
Q
What does abnormality as statistical infrequency mean?
A
Behaviour is abnormal because it is statistically rare, based on the idea that behaviour is normally distributed.
4
Q
What percentage of the population is considered statistically abnormal in the statistical infrequency definition?
A
People who are 2 standard deviations above or below the mean (2.145% of the population).
5
Q
What is a limitation of the statistical infrequency approach regarding desirability?
A
It does not account for desirable behaviours, such as genius or low anxiety, which are statistically infrequent but not abnormal.
6
Q
Why might statistical data about abnormality be inaccurate?
A
Issues like gender bias and socialisation differences can lead to flawed statistical data.
7
Q
What does abnormality as deviation from social norms define?
A
Behaviour is abnormal if it deviates from society’s rules about acceptable behaviours, values, and beliefs.
8
Q
What is a limitation of using deviation from social norms to define abnormality?
A
Social norms vary over time and between cultures, leading to inconsistent definitions of abnormality.
9
Q
What is an example of cultural relativism affecting the definition of abnormality?
A
Practices like the Sun Dance ceremony or eating insects may seem abnormal in Western cultures but are normal elsewhere.
10
Q
What does failure to function adequately mean in the context of abnormality?
A
Behaviours that prevent people from coping with everyday life demands are considered abnormal.
11
Q
What is the Global Assessment of Functioning Scale (GAF)?
A
A scale from 0 to 100 used to assess how well someone functions, with 100 indicating superior functioning.
12
Q
What is a limitation of the failure to function adequately definition?
A
It involves subjective value judgements and may incorrectly label normal responses to stress as abnormal.
13
Q
What is abnormality as a deviation from ideal mental health?
A
Abnormality occurs when behaviour deviates from an ideal standard of mental health, such as Jahoda’s criteria.
14
Q
What are Jahoda’s six criteria for ideal mental health?
A
Positive self-attitude, self-actualisation, resistance to stress, personal autonomy, accurate perception of reality, and the ability to adapt to one’s environment.
15
Q
What is a limitation of Jahoda’s criteria for ideal mental health?
A
The criteria are so demanding that everyone would be considered abnormal to some extent.
16
Q
Why is Jahoda’s criteria criticised for cultural relativism?
A
It reflects individualistic cultures like the USA, not collectivist cultures where personal autonomy is not ideal.
17
Q
Why might accurate perception of reality not define ideal mental health?
A
Studies suggest that depressed individuals may perceive reality more accurately than non-depressed individuals.
18
Q
How can perceptions of reality change over time?
A
New knowledge (e.g., the Earth being round) can alter what is considered an accurate perception of reality.
19
Q
What is a conclusion about definitions of abnormality?
A
None of the definitions is completely satisfactory or universal, leading to the use of multiple definitions.
20
Q
What are phobias?
A
Phobias are irrational fears that cause extreme anxiety and lead to avoidance of the feared object or situation.
21
Q
What are the different types of phobias?
A
Specific phobias, agoraphobia, and social phobias.
22
Q
What emotional characteristics are associated with phobias?
A
Phobias cause excessive and persistent fear, anxiety, and panic, out of proportion to the actual danger.
23
Q
What behavioural characteristics are seen in individuals with phobias?
A
Individuals avoid the feared object or situation, and may freeze or faint when confronted with it.
24
Q
What cognitive characteristics are observed in phobias?
A
Phobics have irrational thought processes, resistant to rational arguments, and may recognise their fear as irrational.
25
What is the two-process model for explaining phobias?
The two-process model explains phobias through classical conditioning (initiation) and operant conditioning (maintenance).
26
How does classical conditioning explain the initiation of phobias?
Phobias are learned through association, as seen in Little Albert’s case where he learned to fear a white rat after associating it with a loud noise.
27
How does operant conditioning explain the maintenance of phobias?
Avoiding the feared object reduces fear, which is reinforcing the avoidance behaviour, thus maintaining the phobia.
28
What is a strength of the behavioural approach to phobias?
It is based on scientific experiments, such as Little Albert’s case, which provide support for classical and operant conditioning.
29
What is a limitation of the behavioural approach to phobias?
It is reductionist, as it oversimplifies phobias to learned behaviours and ignores other factors like genetics or evolution.
30
What is the evolutionary explanation for phobias?
Evolutionary theory suggests that phobias may be adaptive responses to potentially life-threatening stimuli, like spiders or heights.
31
What is the diathesis-stress model in relation to phobias?
The diathesis-stress model suggests that phobias can develop if there is a genetic predisposition (diathesis) and an environmental trigger (stress).
32
What is systematic desensitisation (SD)?
SD involves creating an anxiety hierarchy, teaching relaxation techniques, and gradually exposing the person to their fear in a controlled way.
33
What is the effectiveness of systematic desensitisation?
SD has a 75% success rate for simple phobias and 90% for blood-injection phobias after five sessions of graded exposure.
34
What is a strength of systematic desensitisation?
It is appropriate as the patient is in control, progressing through the anxiety hierarchy at their own pace.
35
What is a weakness of systematic desensitisation?
It may not generalise well to real-life situations because it is often done in therapy rather than everyday contexts.
36
What is flooding in phobia treatment?
Flooding involves a single, intense session where the patient faces their fear at its worst, while practicing relaxation until anxiety decreases.
37
What is the effectiveness of flooding?
Flooding is effective for specific phobias, though less so for complex phobias like social phobia or agoraphobia.
38
What is a strength of flooding?
It is a relatively quick treatment, requiring only one session compared to other therapies like CBT or SD.
39
What is a weakness of flooding?
Flooding can be highly traumatic, and if patients quit, the effectiveness of the treatment is reduced, potentially worsening the phobia.
40
What is a general evaluation point for both SD and flooding?
Behaviourist treatments address symptoms but not the cause of the phobia, meaning the phobia might resurface later.
41
What percentage of people in the UK have obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)?
1.3%
42
What are the two main types of symptoms in OCD?
Obsessions and compulsions
43
What are obsessions in the context of OCD?
Persistent and recurrent thoughts or impulses that cause anxiety.
44
What are compulsions in the context of OCD?
Repetitive behaviours or mental acts that a person feels driven to perform in response to an obsession.
45
How do compulsions affect the anxiety caused by obsessions?
Carrying out the compulsion usually lowers the anxiety caused by the obsession.
46
Give an example of how obsessions and compulsions may be related.
Fear of germs (obsession) might lead to excessive washing (compulsion).
47
Can compulsions always follow logically from obsessions?
No, for example, a person may turn lights on and off a set number of times to prevent disastrous things, which does not logically connect to the obsession.
48
What emotional characteristics are associated with OCD?
Obsessions and compulsions cause anxiety and distress, and sufferers are often aware that their behaviour is excessive, leading to feelings of embarrassment and shame.
49
What are the cognitive characteristics of OCD?
Recurrent, intrusive thoughts or impulses that are uncontrollable and excessive. The person recognises the thoughts are unreasonable and a product of their own mind.
50
What behavioural characteristics are associated with OCD?
Repetitive behaviours like hand washing, checking, and counting, which are performed to reduce the anxiety caused by obsessions.
51
Why do patients with OCD feel compelled to perform certain behaviours?
They feel that they must perform these actions to prevent something dreadful from happening.
52
What is the key concept behind the biological approach to explaining mental disorders?
The causes of mental disorders are the same as those for physical illnesses.
53
What is depression?
Depression is a mood disorder characterised by extreme changes in mood, often involving feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and a loss of interest in usual activities.
54
What type of disorder is depression considered to be?
Depression is considered a mood disorder.
55
What are the main emotional characteristics of depression?
Emotional characteristics include sadness, feelings of worthlessness, hopelessness, low self-esteem, loss of interest in activities, and feelings of despair.
56
How does depression affect behaviour?
Depression can cause tiredness, the desire to sleep excessively, agitation, restlessness, changes in appetite, and disrupted sleep patterns (insomnia or excessive sleep).
57
What cognitive characteristics are associated with depression?
People with depression experience negative self-concepts, negative views of the world, and irrational thoughts, which can become self-fulfilling.
58
Who proposed the ABC model in explaining depression?
Albert Ellis proposed the ABC model.
59
What does the 'A' in the ABC model represent?
'A' represents an activating event, such as a stressful situation (e.g., being fired).
60
What does the 'B' in the ABC model represent?
'B' represents the belief about the activating event, which can be rational or irrational.
61
What does the 'C' in the ABC model represent?
'C' refers to the consequence, where rational beliefs lead to healthy emotions and irrational beliefs lead to unhealthy emotions.
62
What is 'mustabatory thinking' in the context of depression?
Mustabatory thinking refers to the belief that certain assumptions must be true for happiness, such as needing approval from others or needing success to feel worthwhile.
63
What are the three main assumptions associated with mustabatory thinking?
The three assumptions are:
I must be approved of or accepted by others.
I must do well or I am worthless.
The world must give me happiness, or I will die.
64
How does Beck explain the development of negative self-schemas?
Beck suggested that negative self-schemas can develop from traumatic experiences, such as parental rejection or criticism, especially in childhood.
65
What is confirmation bias and how does it relate to depression?
Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek evidence that supports negative beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts them, reinforcing depressive thoughts.
66
What is black and white thinking in depression?
Black and white thinking refers to viewing situations in extremes, where anything less than perfect is seen as failure.
67
What are the three components of Beck's cognitive model of depression?
The three components are:
Negative views of the self.
Negative views of the world.
Negative views of the future.
68
How do negative thoughts interfere with cognitive processing in depression?
Negative thoughts become automatic, disrupting cognitive processing and contributing to a cycle of depressive symptoms.
69
What is the relationship between negative thoughts and symptoms of depression?
Negative thoughts lead to depressive symptoms, and the presence of depression further fuels negative thinking, creating a vicious cycle.
70
What is the main criticism of the data linking negative thinking to depression?
The data is correlational, meaning we cannot determine whether negative thinking causes depression or if depression leads to negative thinking.
71
What did Grazioli and Terry (2000) find in their study on cognitive vulnerability and depression?
They found that women with high levels of cognitive vulnerability during pregnancy were more likely to develop postnatal depression.
72
What is one strength of the cognitive explanation of depression?
A strength is that it has led to practical applications for treating depression, such as cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT).
73
What is cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and how does it treat depression?
CBT is a therapy that aims to challenge and change negative thoughts through techniques like cognitive restructuring, helping individuals develop healthier thought patterns.
74
What is the success rate of CBT for treating depression?
CBT has a success rate of about 90%, with many patients showing improvement.
75
What is one criticism of the cognitive explanation of depression regarding irrational thinking?
One criticism is that some people with depression may have more realistic thinking than those without depression, challenging the notion that all their thoughts are irrational.
76
What does it mean when thinking is described as deterministic in the context of depression?
It means that negative thinking is assumed to always lead to depression, without considering other factors or alternative outcomes like anxiety or eating disorders.
77
What is the reductionist criticism of the cognitive explanation of depression?
The reductionist criticism suggests that the cognitive explanation oversimplifies depression by reducing it solely to faulty thinking, neglecting other possible factors, such as biological causes.
78
How do biological factors play a role in depression, according to critics of the cognitive explanation?
Critics argue that depression could also be caused by biological factors, such as genetic predisposition and imbalances in neurotransmitters like serotonin.
79
What is the diathesis-stress model in relation to depression?
The diathesis-stress model suggests that depression results from a combination of genetic vulnerability (diathesis) and environmental stressors such as living in a negative environment (stress), leading to negative thinking and depression.
80
What is REBT and who developed it?
REBT (Rational-Emotive Behaviour Therapy) is a type of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) developed by Albert Ellis in 1957. It focuses on changing irrational thinking.
81
What causes self-defeating habits according to REBT?
Self-defeating habits are caused by faulty beliefs about oneself and the world, which lead to emotional problems.
82
What is the goal of REBT?
The goal of REBT is to help clients understand their irrational thinking and replace it with more effective problem-solving methods.
83
What are common irrational beliefs in REBT?
Common irrational beliefs include:
"Everyone should approve of me."
"I must be competent: it would be awful to fail." (Ellis and Harper, 1975).
84
What does Ellis refer to when he talks about 'mental' problems?
Ellis referred to the mental processes that transform life's ordinary disappointments into emotional traumas, caused by irrational thinking.
85
What is the process of disputing in REBT?
Disputing involves challenging self-defeating beliefs. Ellis argued that by developing a dispute system, patients can overcome emotional problems.
86
What are the three types of disputing used in REBT?
The three types of disputing are:
Logical disputing: Challenging the logical consistency of self-defeating beliefs.
Empirical disputing: Checking if self-defeating beliefs match reality.
Pragmatic disputing: Questioning the usefulness of self-defeating beliefs.
87
What happens when self-defeating beliefs are effectively disputed in REBT?
When self-defeating beliefs are disputed and replaced with rational ones, clients can move from awfulising to more rational interpretations of events.
88
What role does homework play in REBT?
Homework is used to encourage clients to assess the rationality of their beliefs and apply the strategies learned in therapy to everyday life.
89
What success rate did Ellis (1957) claim for REBT?
Ellis claimed a 90% success rate for REBT, with an average of 27 sessions needed to complete treatment.
90
What evidence supports the effectiveness of REBT?
A meta-analysis found REBT to have the second-highest average success rate among 10 forms of therapy, suggesting it is effective for treating depression.
91
Why might REBT not work for severe cases of depression?
In severe cases, patients may lack the motivation to attend sessions or pay attention during them, making REBT less effective.
92
How effective is REBT combined with medication for depression treatment?
REBT combined with medication has been found to be more effective for major depression than medication alone, especially in reducing the risk of suicide.
93
What were the findings of the study on adolescents with depression treated with Prozac, CBT, or both?
The study found that 73% of adolescents in the Prozac and CBT group improved at 12 weeks, compared to 62% with Prozac and 48% with CBT alone. At 36 weeks, 87% of the combined group improved.
94
How did CBT affect suicidal thoughts in the study?
CBT significantly reduced suicidal thoughts from 30% at the beginning to 6% at the end, compared to 15% in the Prozac-only group.
95
What is a criticism of REBT related to symptom treatment?
REBT focuses on treating symptoms rather than addressing the root causes of faulty thinking, which might lead to recurring depression if the underlying causes are not addressed.
96
What is one benefit of REBT for long-term use?
REBT equips clients with strategies for self-help, allowing them to take control of their treatment, which can be helpful in the long run.
97
Why might REBT be seen as unethical by some?
REBT is considered aggressive by some because it challenges the client's thinking directly, potentially making them feel blamed for their depression.
98
What are the key features of the biological approach to OCD?
The biological approach to OCD suggests that mental disorders like OCD are caused by biological factors such as genetics, neurotransmitter imbalances, and abnormalities in brain structures.
99
How do genetic factors influence OCD?
Genetic factors can make individuals more susceptible to developing OCD by passing on a predisposition to the disorder through inherited genes.
100
What does the genetic explanation for OCD suggest?
The genetic explanation suggests that OCD is polygenic, meaning multiple genes contribute to its development, and some variations in genes like COMT and SERT may increase susceptibility to OCD.
101
How might the COMT gene contribute to OCD?
The COMT gene regulates dopamine production. A variation in this gene can lead to lower COMT activity, which results in higher dopamine levels, possibly contributing to OCD.
102
What is the role of the SERT gene in OCD?
The SERT gene regulates serotonin transport. A variation in this gene leads to lower serotonin levels, which have been associated with OCD symptoms.
103
How might Taylor's (2013) research contribute to understanding OCD's genetic basis?
Taylor (2013) found that up to 230 genes might be involved in OCD, supporting the idea that it is a polygenic disorder and influenced by a combination of genetic factors.
104
What are the different research methods used to investigate the role of genes in OCD?
Research methods include family studies, twin studies, and genetic research to identify potential genetic contributions to OCD.
105
How do family studies help investigate the genetic basis of OCD?
Family studies examine whether OCD is more common in biological relatives, suggesting that genetic factors play a role in the disorder’s development.
106
What is a limitation of using family studies to investigate OCD's genetic basis?
A limitation is that family members share both genes and environment, making it difficult to separate genetic influences from environmental factors.
107
How do twin studies help investigate the genetic role in OCD?
Twin studies compare the occurrence of OCD in identical (MZ) and non-identical (DZ) twins to determine the genetic contribution by comparing the concordance rates.
108
What does a higher concordance rate between MZ twins than DZ twins suggest about the role of genes in OCD?
It suggests that genetic factors play a significant role in the development of OCD, as MZ twins share 100% of their genes and are more likely to both develop OCD compared to DZ twins.
109
What does it suggest if MZ twins have similar environments in comparison to DZ twins in OCD studies?
It suggests that genetic factors are more influential in the development of OCD, as MZ twins share more genetic material than DZ twins, potentially influencing the results of studies.
110
What research on family studies indicates about the genetic basis of OCD?
Research indicates that OCD is more common among first-degree relatives of individuals with the disorder, suggesting a genetic component.
111
What did Nestadt et al. (2000) find in their study of OCD and first-degree relatives?
Nestadt et al. (2000) found that first-degree relatives of individuals with OCD had a five times greater risk of developing the disorder compared to the control group.
112
How do twin studies contribute to understanding the genetic basis of OCD?
Twin studies show that identical twins (MZ) have higher concordance rates for OCD compared to non-identical twins (DZ), highlighting the role of genetics in the disorder.
113
What did Nestadt et al. (2010) find in their review of twin studies related to OCD?
Nestadt et al. (2010) found that the concordance rate for OCD in MZ twins was 68%, compared to 31% for DZ twins, indicating a strong genetic influence.
114
What is a limitation of twin studies in understanding OCD?
A limitation is that MZ twins might be treated more similarly than DZ twins, which could influence the results and confound the genetic findings.
115
How are neurotransmitters and neuroanatomy involved in OCD?
Imbalances in neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine, as well as abnormalities in brain regions like the OFC and thalamus, are linked to OCD.
116
What areas of the brain are linked to OCD and what are their functions?
The OFC (involved in decision-making and worry) and the thalamus (linked to safety behaviours like checking and cleaning) are implicated in OCD.
117
How might low serotonin and high dopamine levels contribute to OCD?
Low serotonin can impair communication in brain circuits involved in regulating behaviour, while high dopamine levels may result in overactivity in circuits linked to OCD symptoms.
118
What evidence supports the involvement of neural mechanisms in OCD?
PET scans show heightened activity in the OFC and related brain regions in individuals with OCD, supporting the role of abnormal neural mechanisms.
119
How do PET scans show the involvement of the OFC in OCD?
PET scans reveal increased activity in the OFC during symptoms of OCD, indicating that the region may be overactive and contributing to compulsions.
120
How do drug treatments for OCD support the neural explanation of the disorder?
Drug treatments that increase serotonin levels, such as SSRIs, reduce OCD symptoms, supporting the theory that serotonin imbalances contribute to the disorder.
121
What are the key strengths of the biological explanation of OCD?
The biological approach is supported by empirical evidence from genetic, neurological, and biochemical studies. It has led to effective treatments such as drug therapy and offers a clear understanding of the disorder’s mechanisms.
122
How does the biological approach to OCD contribute to treatment development?
The biological approach has led to the development of drug treatments such as SSRIs and tricyclic antidepressants that target neurotransmitter imbalances, helping to alleviate OCD symptoms.
123
What is a weakness of the biological approach to OCD in terms of reductionism?
A weakness of the biological approach is that it reduces OCD to just biological factors, ignoring the role of environmental and cognitive factors in the development and treatment of the disorder.
124
What evidence from Cromer et al. (2007) challenges the biological explanation of OCD?
Cromer et al. (2007) found that OCD symptoms were more severe in individuals who had experienced traumatic events, suggesting that environmental factors also play a significant role in the development of OCD.
125
How can the behaviourist two-process model explain OCD?
The two-process model explains OCD as a learned behaviour, where an initial anxiety-provoking event is associated with a neutral stimulus, and compulsions are reinforced through negative reinforcement to reduce anxiety.
126
How does a cognitive approach to OCD differ from the biological model?
The cognitive approach focuses on faulty thinking patterns, such as intrusive thoughts and dysfunctional beliefs, while the biological model focuses on the brain's structure, genetics, and neurotransmitter imbalances.
127
What are the weaknesses of the biological approach to OCD in terms of determinism?
The biological approach is deterministic because it suggests that OCD is caused by biological factors beyond the individual’s control, which may not account for the influence of free will or environmental factors.
128
What does the diathesis-stress model suggest about the causes of OCD?
The diathesis-stress model suggests that individuals may inherit a genetic vulnerability to OCD, but environmental stressors are necessary to trigger the disorder.
129
What are the main treatments for OCD based on the biological approach?
The main treatments are drug therapies, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and tricyclic antidepressants, which aim to correct neurotransmitter imbalances associated with OCD.
130
How do antidepressant drugs treat OCD?
Antidepressant drugs, particularly SSRIs, increase serotonin levels in the brain, which helps to reduce the symptoms of OCD by improving communication between brain regions involved in compulsive behaviours.
131
What is the role of SSRIs in treating OCD?
SSRIs increase serotonin levels in the brain, which helps to regulate mood and reduce the compulsive behaviors associated with OCD.
132
How do SSRIs work in the brain to treat OCD?
SSRIs block the reuptake of serotonin, making more serotonin available in the brain to improve communication between the brain regions involved in OCD.
133
What is the typical dosage of Fluoxetine for treating OCD?
The typical dosage of Fluoxetine for treating OCD is 20 mg per day, though this may be adjusted depending on the patient's response and side effects.
134
How long does it take for SSRIs to impact OCD symptoms?
SSRIs typically take 2 to 4 weeks to show noticeable effects in reducing OCD symptoms.
135
What happens if SSRIs are not effective in treating OCD?
If SSRIs are not effective, doctors may increase the dosage, switch to a different SSRI, or prescribe a different type of medication, such as tricyclic antidepressants.
136
What is a strength of drug therapy in treating OCD?
A strength of drug therapy is that it provides a quick and effective solution for many patients, offering relief from symptoms and improving quality of life.
137
How does drug therapy improve the quality of life for OCD patients?
Drug therapy reduces the severity of OCD symptoms, allowing patients to engage in daily activities without being overwhelmed by compulsions and obsessions.
138
What are some weaknesses of drug therapy for OCD?
Some weaknesses include side effects, the potential for relapse after discontinuing medication, and the fact that drug therapy only addresses symptoms rather than the root causes of OCD.
139
What are common side effects of SSRIs in treating OCD?
Common side effects of SSRIs include nausea, headaches, insomnia, sexual dysfunction, and weight gain.
140
What are the more severe side effects of tricyclic antidepressants?
More severe side effects of tricyclic antidepressants include blurred vision, dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention, and an increased risk of heart problems.
141
Why might drug therapy not be appropriate for all patients?
Drug therapy may not be suitable for patients who are unable to tolerate the side effects, have a history of substance abuse, or prefer non-pharmacological treatments.
142
How does drug therapy treat symptoms but not the cause of OCD?
While drug therapy can alleviate the symptoms of OCD by balancing neurotransmitter levels, it does not address underlying psychological or environmental factors that may contribute to the disorder.
143
What is the limitation of drug treatments in terms of long-term relief for OCD?
The limitation of drug treatments is that they do not provide long-term relief. Symptoms often return once the medication is discontinued, requiring ongoing treatment.
144
What is the issue with studies showing the effectiveness of drug treatments for OCD?
One issue is that many studies on drug treatments are sponsored by pharmaceutical companies, which could lead to biased results in favour of the drug’s effectiveness.
145
What is publication bias and how might it affect research on drug treatments?
Publication bias refers to the tendency for studies with positive results to be published more often than those with negative results, potentially overstating the effectiveness of drug treatments.
146
What concerns exist regarding research funded by drug companies?
Concerns include the potential for biased findings that favour the effectiveness of the drugs, as well as the suppression of negative or conflicting results that could harm sales.
147
What are the limitations of using drug therapies in treating OCD?
Limitations include the potential for side effects, the need for long-term use to prevent relapse, and the fact that drug treatments do not address the underlying causes of OCD, such as environmental or psychological factors.
