relationships Flashcards
(161 cards)
1
Q
What is the main concept of natural selection?
A
Natural selection argues that animals should have characteristics that help them compete for survival, with most features having an adaptive function in the struggle for existence.
1
Q
Why does Darwin argue that the process of natural selection is complemented by sexual selection?
A
Darwin realized that some features, like the peacock’s tail, may impair survival but have evolved because they are attractive to the opposite sex, helping with mate attraction and competition.
2
Q
What is sexual selection?
A
Sexual selection refers to traits evolving because they are attractive to the opposite sex, and it can also involve competition between members of the same sex for access to mates.
3
Q
What is intersexual selection?
A
Intersexual selection refers to the effects of choice by members of the opposite sex on mate selection.
4
Q
What is intrasexual selection?
A
Intrasexual selection refers to competition between members of the same sex for access to mates.
5
Q
What is the role of evolutionary psychology in human mate choice?
A
Evolutionary psychologists argue that mate choice behaviours evolved to maximize the chance of passing on genes, with distinct strategies for men and women based on different evolutionary pressures.
6
Q
Why do females have a low potential reproductive rate?
A
Females have a low potential reproductive rate because they produce a few large eggs, are only fertile for a limited time each month, and invest heavily in pregnancy and lactation.
7
Q
Why do males have a high potential reproductive rate?
A
Males have a high potential reproductive rate because they produce a large number of sperm daily, with little energy required for reproduction compared to females.
8
Q
What characteristics do females prefer in males according to evolutionary theory?
A
Females prefer males with resources (e.g., ambition, intelligence) and older males who have had more time to gather resources.
9
Q
What characteristics do males prefer in females according to evolutionary theory?
A
Males prefer indicators of fertility, such as youth, a curvy body, and physical attractiveness, as these suggest good genes and the ability to support offspring.
10
Q
What did Buss et al. (1989) find about mate preferences?
A
Buss et al. found that women value earning potential and ambition more, while men value physical attractiveness and youth more, supporting evolutionary predictions.
11
Q
What does the study by Buss et al. (1989) suggest about the basis of mate choice?
A
The study suggests that mate preferences are more likely to have a genetic basis rather than being culturally determined, as similar patterns were found across 37 different cultures.
12
Q
What did Kenrick’s study reveal about mate preferences for different types of relationships?
A
Kenrick’s study found that intelligence is valued for marriage partners, but less important for one-night stands, suggesting mate preferences can differ depending on relationship type.
13
Q
What did Clarke & Hatfield (1989) find in their study on sexual behaviour?
A
Clarke & Hatfield found that women were more likely to be choosy about casual sex, supporting evolutionary theory that women are more selective due to higher reproductive costs.
14
Q
What is a criticism of evolutionary explanations in mate choice?
A
Evolutionary explanations can be criticized for being reductionist, simplifying complex social behaviour to just reproductive strategies and ignoring other factors like culture.
15
Q
What is a criticism of evolutionary theories related to homosexual relationships?
A
Evolutionary theories struggle to explain homosexual relationships, as mate choice in such relationships doesn’t lead to increased reproductive success.
16
Q
What is a criticism of the deterministic nature of evolutionary explanations?
A
Evolutionary explanations can be criticized for being deterministic, implying that individuals have little or no choice in partner selection, reducing the role of personal deliberation.
17
Q
What is sperm competition?
A
Sperm competition refers to the competition between sperm from different males within the female reproductive tract, influencing the evolution of male reproductive traits.
18
Q
How does testes size relate to sperm competition?
A
The size of testes indicates the level of sperm competition, with larger testes evolving in species where females mate with multiple males, such as chimpanzees.
19
Q
What does the comparison of human testes size with other species suggest?
A
The comparison suggests that humans have moderately sized testes, indicating past intra-sexual selection, and that human females may be more promiscuous than initially believed.
20
Q
What is self-disclosure in romantic relationships?
A
Self-disclosure means revealing personal information about yourself to your partner, which strengthens the bond when done appropriately.
21
Q
What is the key concept in Altman and Taylor’s social penetration theory?
A
The key concept is self-disclosure, where partners gradually reveal deeper personal thoughts and feelings to each other.
22
Q
What is the process of self-disclosure according to social penetration theory?
A
Self-disclosure involves a gradual exchange of personal information, progressing from superficial topics to deeper, more intimate ones, fostering trust and intimacy.
23
Q
What are the two key elements of self-disclosure according to Altman and Taylor?
A
The two key elements are breadth (the range of topics disclosed) and depth (the intimacy of the information disclosed).
24
How does self-disclosure develop over time in a romantic relationship?
Initially, self-disclosure is shallow and covers low-risk topics. As the relationship progresses, disclosure becomes deeper and encompasses more personal and intimate details.
25
What is the metaphor used by Altman and Taylor to describe the process of self-disclosure?
The metaphor of an onion is used to illustrate how self-disclosure starts with outer layers (superficial) and moves to deeper layers (intimate details).
26
Why is reciprocity important in self-disclosure?
Reciprocity ensures that both partners disclose personal information, which increases intimacy and strengthens the relationship.
27
What does Reis and Shaver (1988) highlight about self-disclosure in relationships?
Reis and Shaver emphasize that for a relationship to develop, self-disclosure needs to be reciprocal, with both partners sharing intimate thoughts and feelings.
28
What are the three factors necessary for a successful romantic relationship according to social penetration theory?
The three factors are breadth, depth, and reciprocity in self-disclosure.
29
How did Sprecher and Hendrick (2004) support the idea that self-disclosure is important in romantic relationships?
They found strong positive correlations between self-disclosure and relationship satisfaction in heterosexual dating couples.
30
What was the method used by Laurenceau et al. (2005) to study self-disclosure and intimacy?
Laurenceau et al. used daily diary entries to measure self-disclosure and its link to intimacy in long-term married couples.
31
What did the study by Laurenceau et al. (2005) find about self-disclosure and intimacy?
The study found that self-disclosure and the perception of self-disclosure were linked to higher levels of intimacy in long-term couples.
32
What is a criticism of much self-disclosure research?
Much of the research is correlational, making it difficult to infer cause and effect between self-disclosure and relationship satisfaction.
33
How can research into self-disclosure help people in real life?
It can help individuals improve communication in their relationships, particularly by encouraging open and honest self-disclosure to strengthen intimacy.
34
What did Hass and Stafford (1998) find about self-disclosure in relationships?
They found that 57% of gay men and women said open and honest self-disclosure was the main way they maintained and deepened their committed relationships.
35
What is a limitation of self-disclosure theory in terms of culture?
Self-disclosure theory may be culturally biased, as it doesn’t apply universally across all cultures, particularly between individualistic and collectivist societies.
36
How does sexual self-disclosure differ between cultures, according to Tand et al. (2013)?
In individualistic cultures like the USA, higher sexual self-disclosure leads to greater relationship satisfaction, whereas in collectivist cultures like China, lower sexual self-disclosure is linked to satisfaction.
37
What is the conclusion about self-disclosure theory’s applicability across cultures?
Self-disclosure theory is limited in its applicability across cultures and is beta culturally biased, as it’s based primarily on research from individualistic Western cultures.
38
What does physical attractiveness indicate in evolutionary theory?
Physical attractiveness indicates good genes, health, fertility, and youth, which are important for mate selection.
39
Why are symmetrical faces considered attractive?
Symmetrical faces are considered attractive because they are an "honest" signal of genetic fitness, difficult to fake, and suggest good genes.
40
Do women consider physical attractiveness when choosing a partner for short-term or long-term relationships?
Women tend to consider physical attractiveness when choosing a partner for short-term relationships, but it is less important for long-term, serious relationships.
41
What is the matching hypothesis?
The matching hypothesis suggests that people are attracted to others who are similar in physical attractiveness to themselves, balancing the desire for an attractive partner with the likelihood of rejection.
42
Why might a relationship be uncomfortable if there is unequal matching in physical attractiveness?
The more attractive partner may feel no need to settle for a less attractive partner, while the less attractive partner may feel insecure in the relationship.
43
What was the aim of Meltzer et al.'s (2014) study?
Meltzer aimed to investigate sex differences in the importance of physical attractiveness in long-term relationships.
44
What did Meltzer et al.'s (2014) study find regarding the correlation between physical attractiveness and marital satisfaction?
The study found that the more attractive the wife, the more satisfied the husband was with the marriage, but this correlation did not apply to wives’ satisfaction with their husbands' attractiveness.
45
What did Taylor et al.'s (2011) study find regarding the matching hypothesis?
Taylor et al. found that people on a dating website were more likely to try to arrange meetings with partners who were more physically attractive than themselves, contradicting the matching hypothesis.
46
What did studies across cultures reveal about the importance of physical attractiveness?
Studies found that physical attractiveness is universally important in partner selection, with people from various cultures rating similar physical traits (e.g., prominent cheekbones, small noses, large eyes) as attractive.
47
What does the universality of physical attractiveness suggest about human behaviour?
The universality suggests that physical attractiveness is a genetic factor aiding sexual selection, supporting the nature side of the nature-nurture debate.
48
How do individual differences affect the importance of physical attractiveness?
People with sexist attitudes tend to place more importance on physical attractiveness, suggesting that its significance varies among individuals.
49
What is a criticism of research into physical attractiveness?
A criticism is that it is reductionist, oversimplifying mate selection by focusing only on physical attractiveness and ignoring other important factors, such as personality, kindness, and status.
50
According to the Filter theory, what determines attraction in relationships?
The Filter theory argues that similarity in attitudes, not physical attractiveness, determines who we find attractive in a relationship.
51
What does the filter model suggest about relationship development?
The filter model suggests that relationships develop through three filters, with different factors becoming important at different stages, gradually narrowing down potential partners to a "field of desirables."
52
What is the 'field of availables' in the filter model?
The 'field of availables' refers to the pool of people who could potentially be chosen as a partner. It is gradually narrowed down to those considered "desirable."
53
What is the first filter in the filter model?
The first filter involves social demographic variables, such as location, educational background, and social class. People tend to mix with others similar to themselves.
54
How does similarity of attitudes and values play a role in relationship development according to the filter model?
Once a relationship begins, similarity in attitudes and values becomes important. Sharing similar beliefs and interests promotes easier communication and relationship progression, while differences may lead to a lack of communication and hinder progress.
55
What is the third filter in the filter model?
The third filter involves complementarity of emotional needs. Partners with complementary needs, like the need to be cared for and the need to care, make the relationship more likely to succeed.
56
What did Kerckhoff and Davis (1962) find in their study of the filter model?
They found that attitude similarity was the most important factor for relationships up to about 18 months, after which psychological compatibility and the ability to meet emotional needs became more important.
57
What is a criticism of the filter theory based on Levinger's (1970) study?
Levinger found no evidence that similarity or complementarity of emotional needs affected relationship permanence and suggested that the original study's questionnaires may no longer be suitable due to changing social attitudes, questioning the temporal validity of the theory.
58
How has online dating affected the validity of the first filter in the filter theory?
Online dating has made it easier to meet potential partners outside one's social demographic, which reduces the importance of social demographic variables, suggesting that the first filter may no longer be as valid.
59
What did Anderson (2003) find in relation to attitude similarity and the filter theory?
Anderson found that cohabiting partners became more similar over time, suggesting that attitude similarity is a result of initial attraction rather than a cause, challenging the filter theory's prediction.
60
How is the filter theory gender-biased?
The filter theory is criticized for being beta gender biased, as it does not account for the possibility that men and women may use different filters when selecting partners, with men focusing on physical attractiveness and women on signs of wealth and resources.
61
How is the filter theory culturally biased?
The filter theory is criticized for being beta culturally biased, as it mainly applies to Western societies and does not consider cross-cultural differences, such as arranged marriages in collectivist cultures.
62
What does Social Exchange Theory (SET) propose about romantic relationships?
SET proposes that relationships are based on the exchange of rewards and costs, similar to a marketplace, where individuals aim to maximize rewards and minimize costs for the most satisfying and enduring relationships.
63
What is the principle behind SET in terms of profit in a relationship?
For a relationship to be maintained, the rewards minus the costs should result in a positive outcome (profit) for both individuals. People aim to maximize rewards and minimize costs.
64
How are rewards and costs perceived in SET?
Rewards and costs are subjective; what one person values as a reward (e.g., a compliment) may not be significant to their partner. Possible rewards include companionship and care, while costs might include effort and financial costs.
65
What is the Comparison Level (CL) in SET?
The Comparison Level (CL) is a standard used to judge relationships based on past experiences and social norms, which influences what people expect from a relationship. If the actual profit exceeds the CL, the relationship is seen as worthwhile.
66
How does the Comparison Level for Alternatives (CLalt) affect relationships?
CLalt refers to weighing the rewards of a potential new relationship against the costs of ending the current one. If alternatives offer higher rewards, the current relationship is more likely to end.
67
What conditions maintain a relationship according to SET?
A relationship will maintain if:
Rewards are high, costs are low.
Profit is high compared to the Comparison Level (CL).
Profit from alternatives (CLalt) is low.
68
What conditions lead to the breakdown of a relationship according to SET?
A relationship will break down if:
Rewards are low, costs are high.
Profit is low compared to the Comparison Level (CL).
Profit from alternatives (CLalt) is higher.
69
What did Sprecher (2001) find in support of the CLalt aspect of SET?
Sprecher found that the presence of alternatives was the biggest predictor of relationship satisfaction. A high presence of alternatives led to lower satisfaction, supporting the theory’s prediction.
70
What is a criticism of SET based on the findings from Sprecher's study?
A criticism is the issue of cause and effect; low relationship satisfaction might cause people to notice more alternatives, rather than the presence of alternatives leading to dissatisfaction.
71
What did Miller (1997) find in relation to SET?
Miller found that people in committed relationships spent less time looking at images of attractive people. This suggests that dissatisfaction might make individuals look for alternatives, contradicting SET’s prediction.
72
Why is there a concern about the ecological validity of studies supporting SET?
Many studies supporting SET use artificial tasks, such as game-playing scenarios with strangers, which do not reflect real-life relationships. This lowers the ecological validity of the theory.
73
What is a criticism of how SET measures rewards and costs in relationships?
It is unclear how individuals calculate the value of rewards and costs (e.g., how do you compare the benefit of seeing children daily to the cost of arguments?). Without clear measurement, the theory’s validity is questionable.
74
Why is SET considered reductionist?
SET is criticized for simplifying relationships to profits and losses, ignoring emotional factors and other influences like instincts and reproductive success. It also overlooks the importance of equity and fairness, which are addressed by the equity theory.
75
What does Equity Theory propose about romantic relationships?
Equity Theory suggests that relationships are based on fairness, meaning both partners should have roughly the same level of profit (rewards minus costs). It's about perceived fairness, not equality.
76
How is equity different from equality in Equity Theory?
Equity is about having roughly the same level of profit (rewards minus costs) for both partners, whereas equality means having exactly the same level of costs and rewards for both partners.
77
What happens if one partner over-benefits and the other under-benefits in a relationship?
If one partner over-benefits and the other under-benefits, it results in inequity, which leads to dissatisfaction. The under-benefitted partner often feels anger, hostility, resentment, and humiliation, while the over-benefitted partner may feel guilt, discomfort, and shame.
78
What motivates partners to restore equity in a relationship?
If inequity is perceived, partners are motivated to restore balance by changing the amount they contribute, the amount they demand, or their perceptions of inputs and outputs. This can also involve changing cognitive perceptions, such as accepting certain costs as normal.
79
Can equity change over the course of a relationship?
Yes, equity can change. For example, during child-rearing years, wives often feel under-benefitted and husbands over-benefitted, leading to a dip in satisfaction. However, during the honeymoon or empty nest periods, both partners tend to feel more equity and satisfaction.
80
What condition is necessary for a relationship to maintain according to Equity Theory?
A relationship will maintain if both partners perceive it to be equitable (fair).
81
What condition leads to a breakdown of a relationship according to Equity Theory?
A relationship will break down if one partner perceives it to be inequitable (unfair).
82
What did Stafford and Canary (2006) find in their study of equity and relationship satisfaction?
Stafford and Canary found that satisfaction was highest for couples who perceived their relationship as equitable, followed by over-benefited partners, and lowest for under-benefited partners. This supports the predictions of Equity Theory.
83
What is a criticism of Equity Theory regarding gender bias?
Equity Theory is beta gender biased as it ignores differences between genders. Research shows that females are more concerned with inequity than males. For example, if females feel under-benefitted, the risk of divorce increases, but this is not the case for males.
84
What does research suggest about individual differences in Equity Theory?
Not all partners are concerned with achieving equity. Some are "benevolents" who are willing to contribute more than they receive, while others, "entitleds," believe they deserve to over-benefit without feeling guilty. This shows that Equity Theory does not apply universally.
85
Why might Equity Theory lack validity in explaining romantic relationships?
Research shows that equity is more important in work and friendship relationships than in romantic relationships. This challenges the theory’s applicability and suggests it may not be an accurate explanation for romantic relationship satisfaction.
86
What is a criticism of Equity Theory regarding its reductionist nature?
Equity Theory is considered reductionist because it simplifies relationship success to equity and inequity, ignoring other factors such as instincts, reproductive success, and emotions. For example, people in inequitable relationships may stay due to love, even in abusive situations.
87
What does Equity Theory ignore that is addressed by Rusbult's Investment Model?
Equity Theory ignores the importance of investment in relationships, which is addressed by Rusbult's Investment Model. It focuses only on fairness rather than considering how investment can influence relationship success.
88
What is the central focus of Rusbult’s Investment Model?
The central focus of Rusbult’s Investment Model is the importance of commitment in relationships and how it influences relationship persistence.
89
What are the three factors that determine commitment in Rusbult's Investment Model?
The three factors are satisfaction, comparison with alternatives, and investment size.
90
How does satisfaction influence commitment in Rusbult’s Investment Model?
Satisfaction is based on the comparison level (CL), where a relationship is satisfying if it has many rewards and few costs. If partners are getting more than they expect from the relationship, they are satisfied.
91
What is the role of comparison with alternatives in Rusbult’s Investment Model?
Comparison with alternatives (CLalt) involves asking if one’s needs could be better met outside the current relationship, either through another relationship or being single. Less attractive alternatives increase commitment to the current relationship.
92
What is the third factor, other than satisfaction and comparison with alternatives, that affects commitment in Rusbult’s model?
The third factor is investment size, which refers to the resources attached to the relationship that would be lost if the relationship ended.
93
What are intrinsic investments in Rusbult's Investment Model?
Intrinsic investments are resources put directly into the relationship, such as tangible (money, possessions) or intangible (effort, energy) resources.
94
What are extrinsic investments in Rusbult's Investment Model?
Extrinsic investments are resources that were not part of the relationship initially but are now associated with it, such as shared possessions (e.g., a car) or mutual friends and memories.
95
How does the combination of satisfaction, alternatives, and investment size predict commitment?
If partners experience high satisfaction (many rewards, few costs), find alternatives less attractive, and have increasing investments, they are likely to be committed to the relationship.
96
Why is commitment more important than satisfaction in Rusbult’s Investment Model?
Commitment is more important than satisfaction because it helps explain why dissatisfied partners stay in relationships—they remain committed due to the investments they have made that they don't want to waste.
97
What is one strength of Rusbult's Investment Model?
One strength is that research, such as Le et al. (2003), supports the model by finding that satisfaction, comparison with alternatives, and investment size all predict relationship commitment and stability across cultures and sexual orientations.
98
How does Rusbult’s model explain why some people stay in abusive relationships?
Rusbult’s model explains that individuals in abusive relationships may remain committed due to high investments and few attractive alternatives, despite low satisfaction.
99
What criticism has been made about the Investment Model’s view of investment?
It has been argued that the model oversimplifies investment, not fully accounting for the importance of future planning in relationships. Goodfriend and Agnew (2008) extended the model to include future investments.
100
What is a weakness of the Investment Model related to measuring commitment?
A weakness is that it is difficult to measure commitment levels accurately. While the Investment Model scale is reliable, it relies on self-report measures, which may be affected by social desirability bias.
101
What is a limitation of the research supporting Rusbult's Investment Model?
A limitation is that much of the research is correlational, meaning cause and effect cannot be established. It is unclear whether increased commitment leads to more investment or if the relationship is the other way around.
102
What is Duck's phase model of relationship breakdown?
Duck's phase model suggests that the breakdown of a relationship is a process involving several stages, where each phase has a threshold that leads to the next stage.
103
What are the four stages of Duck's phase model?
The four stages are: Intrapsychic phase, Dyadic phase, Social phase, and Grave dressing phase.
104
What happens in the intrapsychic phase?
In the intrapsychic phase, one partner becomes dissatisfied with the relationship, dwells on their unhappiness, and may socially withdraw, without discussing concerns with their partner.
105
What is the threshold for progression from the intrapsychic phase?
The threshold is: "I can’t stand it anymore."
106
What happens in the dyadic phase?
The dissatisfied partner expresses their dissatisfaction to their partner, discussing issues like lack of equity or resentment. They may either attempt to repair the relationship or dissolve it.
107
What is the threshold for progression from the dyadic phase?
The threshold is: "I’d be justified in withdrawing."
108
What happens in the social phase?
In the social phase, the intention to break up becomes public, with partners confiding in friends and family. Some may take sides, while others may try to reconcile the couple.
109
What is the threshold for progression from the social phase?
The threshold is: "I mean it."
110
What happens in the grave dressing phase?
In the grave dressing phase, ex-partners organize their new lives, publicly recount their version of the relationship's breakdown, and attempt to present themselves positively for future relationships.
111
What is the threshold for progression from the grave dressing phase?
The threshold is: "It’s now inevitable."
112
How can Duck’s model help in relationship counseling?
Duck’s model can help by identifying the stage of relationship breakdown a couple is in, allowing therapists to use specific strategies to repair the relationship, such as improving communication or focusing on positive aspects.
113
What is a criticism of Duck’s model regarding its rigidity?
Duck’s model is criticized for being too rigid, as not all relationships break down in the same way. Some relationships end quietly, while others may end in conflict or have different dynamics.
114
What additions did Duck make to the original model?
Duck later added that progression from one phase to the next is not inevitable, and it’s possible to return to an earlier phase. He also added a fifth phase called the Resurrection Phase, where ex-partners focus on future relationships using their experiences.
115
What is the social phase like for teenagers and young adults?
For teenagers and young adults, romantic relationships are often seen as unstable, and there are fewer attempts to help couples reconcile after a breakup. The focus is more on moving on quickly.
116
How does the social phase differ for older people in long-term relationships?
For older people in long-term relationships, the social phase involves more significant attempts by others to help the couple reconcile, as the consequences of a breakup are more serious.
117
What is a cultural issue with Duck’s model?
Duck’s model may be culturally biased, as it was based on American married couples. It may not apply to collectivist societies where divorce rates are lower and social networks play a more significant role.
118
What is beta cultural bias in Duck's model?
Beta cultural bias refers to the idea that the model is based on individualistic cultures (like America), and may not accurately apply to collectivist cultures where relationships and breakdowns are viewed differently.
119
What is a methodological criticism of research supporting Duck's model?
Much of the research supporting Duck's model is retrospective, meaning participants recall their experiences after the relationship ends. This may lead to inaccuracies or distorted memories, especially of the early stages of breakdown.
120
What is social desirability bias in research on relationship breakdown?
Social desirability bias refers to the tendency of participants to present themselves in a positive light, which may lead to underreporting of their own failings or mistakes during a relationship breakdown.
121
How might the research supporting Duck’s model lack internal validity?
The research may lack internal validity because participants may not provide accurate or truthful recollections of the breakdown, leading to potential distortions that do not fully support Duck’s theory.
122
What is computer-mediated communication (CMC)?
CMC includes electronic communication methods like email, instant messaging, texts, chat rooms, and social media sites, through which relationships can be formed.
123
What are the two contrasting theories regarding self-disclosure in virtual relationships?
The two contrasting theories are Reduced Cues Theory and Absence of Gating.
124
What does the Reduced Cues Theory suggest about self-disclosure in CMC?
It suggests that CMC leads to less self-disclosure due to the lack of non-verbal cues, making it less likely for intimate relationships to form.
125
What does Reduced Cues Theory say about deindividuation?
It argues that CMC can lead to deindividuation, where individuals don't see others as distinct, making them more likely to behave in an uninhibited or aggressive manner.
126
Why does Reduced Cues Theory argue CMC relationships are less likely to be intimate?
Because without emotional cues like facial expressions, individuals are less aware of each other’s emotional states, reducing the chance for intimate self-disclosure.
127
What does the Absence of Gating theory propose about self-disclosure in virtual relationships?
It suggests that without 'gates' (e.g., physical appearance or shyness), CMC allows more self-disclosure, leading to deeper and faster relationship formation.
128
What is meant by 'gates' in face-to-face relationships?
Gates refer to obstacles such as physical unattractiveness or social awkwardness that might hinder relationship formation.
129
How does the Absence of Gating theory benefit shy or introverted individuals?
It allows them to express their 'true selves' more easily online, which can lead to more meaningful connections.
130
How can Absence of Gating impact offline relationships?
It can enhance offline relationships by improving individuals' self-image and allowing them to form better face-to-face relationships based on their online identity.
131
What is a criticism of the Reduced Cues Theory regarding non-verbal cues?
Some researchers argue that non-verbal cues in CMC are not absent but different, such as timing, style of message, and the use of acrostics and emojis.
132
What evidence contradicts the Reduced Cues Theory?
Tamir & Mitchell (2012) found that self-disclosure on social media is rewarding, activating brain areas associated with pleasure, suggesting self-disclosure is frequent in CMC.
133
What evidence supports the Absence of Gating theory?
McKenna and Bargh (2000) found that shy and socially anxious people express their 'true selves' more online, with 70% of online romantic relationships surviving for over two years.
134
What is a positive implication of Absence of Gating?
It can positively impact offline relationships by helping individuals create a self-image appreciated by others, enhancing both online and offline relationships.
135
What is a limitation of both Reduced Cues Theory and Absence of Gating?
Both theories treat CMC as a single construct, but the effect of self-disclosure varies depending on the type of CMC, such as social media, online dating, or online gaming.
136
What gender bias might exist in research on virtual relationships?
Research may have a beta gender bias, not considering differences in how males and females use CMC, with males focusing on resources and females on attractiveness in online interactions.
137
What is the definition of parasocial relationships?
Parasocial relationships are one-sided, unreciprocated relationships, usually with a celebrity, in which the fan invests a lot of emotional energy, commitment, and time.
138
Who developed the Celebrity Attitude Scale to measure parasocial relationships?
McCutcheon et al. (2002) developed the Celebrity Attitude Scale.
139
What are the three levels of parasocial relationships identified by Maltby et al. (2006)?
1) Entertainment-social, 2) Intense-personal, 3) Borderline pathological.
140
What is the Entertainment-social level of parasocial relationships?
It is the least intense level where celebrities are viewed as sources of entertainment and social interaction, like discussing actors on a TV show with friends.
141
What characterises the Intense-personal level of parasocial relationships?
This level involves greater personal involvement, with obsessive thoughts and intense feelings about the celebrity, like a fan of Kim Kardashian.
142
What is the Borderline pathological level of parasocial relationships?
This level involves uncontrollable fantasies and extreme behaviours, such as spending large sums on celebrity-related items or performing illegal acts at the celebrity’s request.
143
What does the Absorption-Addiction Model propose about parasocial relationships?
It suggests people form parasocial relationships due to deficits in their own lives, such as a weak sense of self-identity or poor psychological adjustment.
144
How does the Absorption-Addiction Model relate to the three levels of celebrity worship?
It predicts that individuals with poorer psychological health may progress from lower to higher levels of parasocial relationships, such as becoming absorbed in a celebrity's life after a personal crisis.
145
What are the two components of the Absorption-Addiction Model?
Absorption and Addiction.
146
What does 'Absorption' mean in the Absorption-Addiction Model?
Absorption involves focusing attention on the celebrity, becoming preoccupied with them and identifying with them.
147
What does 'Addiction' mean in the Absorption-Addiction Model?
Addiction refers to the need for stronger and closer involvement with the celebrity, leading to extreme behaviours like stalking.
148
What did Maltby et al. (2003) find about personality and parasocial relationships?
They found that the Entertainment-social level is linked to Extraversion, the Intense-personal level is associated with neuroticism, and the Borderline pathological level is linked to a psychotic personality.
149
According to Attachment theory, where do parasocial relationships originate?
Parasocial relationships originate from early childhood relationships with primary caregivers.
150
What does Bowlby’s attachment theory suggest about early difficulties?
It suggests that early difficulties can lead to emotional troubles later in life by forming an internal working model of how to interact with others.
151
What is the Continuity Hypothesis in Attachment theory?
The Continuity Hypothesis argues that early relationships influence relationships later in life, including parasocial ones.
152
Which attachment type is most likely to form parasocial relationships?
Insecure-resistant attachment types are most likely to form parasocial relationships.
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Which attachment type is least likely to form parasocial relationships?
Insecure-avoidant attachment types are least likely to form parasocial relationships.
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What did Cole and Leets (1999) find about attachment and parasocial relationships?
They found that insecure-resistant individuals were most likely to form parasocial relationships, while avoidant types were least likely.
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What did McCutcheon et al. (2006) find about insecure-resistant attachment and parasocial relationships?
They found that insecure-resistant attachment was not more likely to lead to parasocial relationships than secure attachment, contradicting the Attachment theory.
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What is a methodological issue in parasocial relationship research?
A common issue is the use of self-report measures, which can lead to social desirability bias, as participants may respond in ways that make them appear more socially acceptable.
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What is a limitation of correlational research in parasocial relationship studies?
Correlational data cannot infer cause and effect, so it's unclear whether psychological factors cause parasocial relationships or if parasocial relationships impact psychological functioning.
158
What cross-cultural evidence supports parasocial relationship research?
Schmid and Klimmt (2011) found similar parasocial attachments to Harry Potter in individualist (Germany) and collectivist (Mexico) cultures, suggesting cross-cultural validity.
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What is a criticism of the Absorption-Addiction Model?
It is reductionist because it oversimplifies parasocial relationships by attributing them only to poor psychological functioning and ignoring other potential factors like attachment style.
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What is a criticism of Attachment theory in explaining parasocial relationships?
It is reductionist because it reduces parasocial relationships to just insecure-resistant attachment types, ignoring other factors like poor psychological functioning, as suggested by the Absorption-Addiction Model.
