Psychopathology Flashcards
(18 cards)
Outline AO1 for Definitions of Abnormality
- Statistical Infrequency
- abnormal behaviour is seen as rare or unusual in terms of how often it occurs in population
- uses objective, measurable data like standard deviation from mean - Deviation from Social Norms
- abnormal when persons behaviour violates unwritten rules or expectations of what is seen as acceptable in society
- norms vary over culture and time - Failure to Function Adequately
- abnormal if unable to cope with everyday life
- sings include stress, unpredictability, irrationality - Deviation from Ideal Mental Health
- abnormal if individual doesnt meet Jahodas criteria for ideal mental health - Positive self attitude
- Self-actualisation
- Resistance to stress
- Personal autonomy
- Accurate perception of reality
- Mastery of environment
Outline AO3 for Definitions of Abnormality
- Statistical Infrequency
+ objective and measurable
based on real data which is useful for diagnosis
- not all rare behaviours are abnormal
a high IQ is statistically infrequent but desirable
- cultural relativism
behaviours common in one culture may be rare in another - Deviation from Social Norms
+ RLA
used to diagnose disorders such as APD
- cultural relativism
norms vary across cultures and time periods
- can lead to human rights abuse
historically, deviation was used to justify oppression
e.g. homosexuality was once a “disorder” - Failure to Function Adequately
+ includes patients experience
takes the patients subjective distress into account so is more humane
- not always abnormal
some behaviours may seem dysfunctional but are socially acceptable
- subjectivity
who decides what is adequate - Deviation from Ideal Mental Health
+ positive, holistic approach
focuses on whats healthy and not just what is wrong
- unrealistic standards
very few people meet all 6 criteria
- cultural bias
the criteria is based on Western individualist ideals and may not be valued in Collectivist cultures
Outline AO1 for Behavioural, Emotional and Cognitive Characteristics of Phobias
Phobias: an anxiety disorder involving an irrational fear of a specific object, situation or activity
Behavioural:
- panic: crying, running away from phobic stimulus
- avoidance: actively avoiding situations involving the phobia
- endurance: remaining in the prescence of phobic stimulus but with high anxiety
Emotional:
- anxiety: high arousal interfering with normal functioning
- fear: immediate and intense
- unreasonable emotional response: fear is disproportionate to actual threat
Cognitive:
- selective attention: cant look away from phobic stimulus
- irrational beliefs about phobic stimuli
- cognitive distortions: phobic object may be seen as more dangerous or disgusting than it really is
Outline AO1 for BEC Characteristics of Depression
depression: a mood disorder characterised by prolonged feelings of sadness, low mood and lack of interest
Behavioural:
- low energy/activity levels: lethargy
- disruption to eat/sleep: insomnia, hypersomnia
- aggression/self harm: caused by irritable mood
Emotional:
- lowered mood: persistent sadness/hopelessness
- anger: directed at self or others
- low self-esteem: feelings of worthlessness, self-loathing
Cognitive:
-poor conc: hard to focus or make decisions
- negative schemas: auto negative thoughts ab self, world, future
- absolutist thinking: “black and white thinking”
Outline AO1 for BEC Characteristics of OCD
OCD (obsessive compulsive disorder): anxiety disorder with obsessions and or compulsions
Behavioural:
- compulsions: repetitive behaviours performed to reduce anxiety
- avoidance: avoiding situations that trigger obsessions
Emotional:
- anxiety and distress due to unpleasant thoughts
- guilt and disgust: may be directed at self or linked to moral/religious concerns
- depression: occurs alongside OCD symptoms
Cognitive:
- obsessive thoughts: intrusive and reptitive
- cognitive strategies
- awareness of irrationality: they know its irrational but cant control them
Outline AO3 for BEC Characteristics of phobias, depression and OCD
+ useful categorisation
helps with diagnosis and treatment by helping to identify symptom types
- overlap between disorders
some symptoms appear in multiple disorders and so can complicate diagnosis
- subjectivity
emotional and cognitive symptoms rely on self report which may not always be accurate or consistent
Outline AO1 for Behavioural Explanation of Phobias
- sees phobias as learned behaviours through experience
Two-Process Model - Mowrer
- Acquisition via C.Conditioning
- phobias are learned when a NS is paired with fear response
Little Albert:
loud noise (UCS) > fear (UCR)
white rat (NS) + UCS > UCR
white rat (CS) > fear (CS)
- the learning is generalised to other similar stimuli e.g. white fluff - Maintenance via O.Conditioning
- phobias maintained through negative reinforcement:
avoidance of negative stimulus = reward
- this reinforces the avoidance and maintains the phobia
Outline AO3 for Behavioural Explanation of Phobias
+ RLA
led to development of effective treatments like systematic desensitation
+ RS Watson&Rayner
Little Albert case study who showed the acquisition of phobias from C.C
- incomplete explanation
ignores cognitive factors like irrational beliefs and doesnt explain phobias without a clear traumatic experience - not all avoidance is anxiety based
could be driven by safety rather than fear - biological preparedness
more likely to have phobias of a evolutionarily dangerous things like snakes than modern dangers like cars suggesting there is a biological component
Outline AO1 for Behavioural Treatments for Phobias
- Systematic Desensitation
- based on counterconditioning: replacing fear with relaxation
Steps:
- anxiety hierarchy: list situations from most to least fearful
- relaxation training: meditation
- exposure: gradually exposed to the phobic stimulus while relaxed
- follows reciprocal inhibition: cant be afraid and relaxed at the same time
- Flooding
- immediate and intense exposure to the phobic stimulus
- no gradual build up
- person learns the fear response is not reinforced and so the anxiety eventually decreases
- based on extinction: fear response is no longer associated with stimulus after repeated exposure
Outline AO3 for Behavioural Treatments for Phobias
Systematic Desensitisation
+ RS for effectiveness
Gilroy et al: long term effectiveness for spider phobia
+ suitable for most patients
especially those who may have learning difficulties
+ preferred by patients
less traumatic than flooding as its more gradual and humane
- more time consuming and costly
Flooding
+ cost effective
quicker than SD or CBT
- highly traumatic
treatment might be left incomplete
- less effective for complex phobias
doesnt tackle cognitive aspects like irrational beliefs
Outline AO1 for Cognitive Approach to Explaining Depression
- depression as a result of faulty, irrational thinking
1. Becks Cognitive Theory of Depression: - proposed that sufferers think in a biased and negative way
a) faulty info processing - focuses on the negative part of situation
b) negative self-schemas - deep beliefs about self which are negative from early experiences
c) negative triad - negative view of the self, world and future
According to Beck, these interact and maintain depressive state
- Ellis’s ABC Model
- argued that depression stems from irrational beliefs formed by negative interpretations
A: Activating Event
- negative external event
B: Beliefs
- irrational beliefs triggered by event
C: Consequences
- emotional and behavioural consequences
Ellis emphasises that its not the event that causes the depression but the irrational beliefs as a result of it
Outline AO3 for Cognitive Explanations to Depression
+ RS Grazioli and Terry
pregnant women with high cognitive vulnerability were more likely to develop postnatal depression
+ practical application
ideas form the basis of CBT which is very effective as a treatment
- doesnt explain all aspects of depression like anger, hallucinations, delusions sometimes present in depression
- blames the individual for having those beliefs and ignores stressors in real life such as poverty
Outline AO1 for Cognitive Approach to Treatment for Depression: CBT
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy is based on identifying and changing irrational thoughts and behaviours
a) Cognitive element
- identify negative thoughts using Becks Negative Triad
- therapist challenges these thoughts and encourages more positive thinking
b) Behavioural action
- encourage engaging in pleasurable or productive activities to boost mood
c) REBT (rational emotive behaviour therapy)
- Ellis’s version of CBT - adds D for dispute and E for effect
- therapist challenges irrational beliefs through logical and empirical arguement
Outline AO3 for Cognitive Approach to Treatment for Depression: CBT
+ very effective
March et al: CBT was as effective as antidepressants and most effect when combined
+ structured and time limited
good for patients who want a clear method and short term therapy
- not suitable for severe cases
patients may need severe medication first to become motivated - doesnt address the past
some patients may want to dwelve deeper into their past experiences and childhood which CBT avoids - overemphasis on cognition
may ignore other factors such as povery or abuse
Outline AO1 for Biological Approach to Explaining OCD
OCD seen as having physiological causes, especially genes and neurotransmitters
- Genetic Explanations
- OCD may be inherited and may run in families due to genetic vulnerability
a) candidate genes
- involved in regulating serotonin
- some genes affect dopamine
b) polygenic
- multiple genes involved in OCD nu]ot just one
- Taylor: up to 230
c) diff types of OCD
- aetiologically heterogenous: diff combos of genes cause diff types of OCD - Neural explanations
OCD may result from abnormal brain structures or ntm imbalances
a) serotonin
- low serotonin lvls = mood regulation issues > could lead to obsessive thoughts and anxiety
- RS from SSRIs (drugs that increase serotonin) that reduce symptoms
b) dopamine
- high dopamine lvls maybe linked to compulsive behaviours
- animal studies: increased dopamine led to OCD-ike behaviour such as repeated movement s
c) brain structures
- basal ganglia and orbitofrontal cortex involved
- OFC: decision making and response to anxiety
- BG: involved in movement, overactivity may lead to compulsions
- imaging studies show heightened activity in OFC in OCD patients
Outline AO3 for Biological Approach to Explaining OCD
+ RS from Nestadt et al
OCD is more common in 1st degree relatives
twin studies: 68% concordance rates for MZ twins and 31% for DZ
+ brain imaging
PET scans show abnormal activity in OFC and basal ganglia
- biological determinism
some people develop OCD without family history so environment plays a part which this explanation doesnt account for - correlation doesnt mean causation
brain abnormalities could be an effect and not cause of OCD
Outline AO1 for Biological Approach to Treating OCD: Drug Therapy
medication used to reduce symptoms by manging ntm imbalances
1. SSRIs - selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
- increase serotonin lvls by preventing reabsorption in synapse
- take 3-4mnths to work
- Alternatives to SSRIs
- tricyclics: older, more side effects
- SNRIs: used when SSRIs dont work
Drug Therapy + CBT
- makes the treatment more effective
Outline AO3 for Biological Approach to Treating OCD: Drug Therapy
+ RS for effeciveness
Soomro et al: SSRIs more effective than placebo and most effective when combined with CBT
+ cost effective and non disruptive
cheaper and easier than therapy and can be taken at home so no major changes in lifestyle
- side effects
SSRIs cause nausea, headaches, insomnia
Tricyclics are more severe and can cause tremors - not a permanent fix
doesnt address the underlying issues like irrational beliefs or trauma - publication bias
drug companies may withhold the negative results of drugs so they seem more effective
