Psychopathology: Key Terms

Question 1

Statistical Infrequency

Answer 1

• we define many aspects of what is normal by referring to typical values
• if we can define what is most common or normal with statistics then we also have an idea of what is not common
• abnormality identified as any value thats two standard deviation points away from mean on a normal distribution

Question 2

Deviation From Social Norms

Answer 2

• in any society there are standards of acceptable behaviour
• anyone who deviates from these sociallly created norms is classed as abnormal
• some are implicit and some are policed by laws

Question 3

Failure to Function Adequately

Answer 3

• judged in terms of not being able to cope with everyday living
• not functioning adequately causes distress and suffering for the individual and/or others
• if it doesn’t cause distress to self or others then a judgement of abnormailty is innappropriate
• the abnormal behvaiour being shown is often maladaptive, irrational or dangerous

Question 4

Deviation From Ideal Mental Health

Answer 4

• Marie Jahoda suggested we should look for absence signs of mental health like we do for physical illnesses
• she identified six categories/characteristics that enable an individual to feel happy (free of distress) and behave competently
• absence of these criteria indicates abnormality

Question 5

Phobias

Answer 5

• a group of mental disorders characterised by high levels of irrational fearful anxiety in response to a particular stimulus or group of stimuli
• the anxiety interferes with normal living
• the irrational fear produces a conscious avoidance of the stimulus

Question 6

Unipolar Depression

Answer 6

also known as major depression, characterised by clinical symptoms usually in cycles, up to 25% of women will suffer and 12% of men

Question 7

Bipolar Depression

Answer 7

also known as manic depression, characterised by mixed episodes of mania and depression, up to 2% will suffer

Question 8

The Two Process Model (Mowrer, 1947)

Answer 8

• suggests that all phobias are learnt from environment
• classical and operant conditioning are able to explain existence of phobias
• classical explains aquisition of phobia
• operant explains maintenance of phobia

Question 9

Systematic Desensitisation

Answer 9

counterconditioning:
- patient is taught a new association that runs counter to the original association
- taught through classical conditioning to associate phobic stimulus with new response
relaxation:
- achieved by patient focusing on their breathing and taking slow, deep breaths
- being mindful of here and now
- progressive muscle relaxation is also used where one muscle at a time is relaxed
- relaxation inhibtion: relxation inhibits the anxiety as you can’t be both scared and relaxed at the same time
Desensitisation hierachy:
- gradually introducing person to feared situation one step at a time
- at each stage patient practises relaxation so anxiety diminishes as it becomes more familiar + less overwhelming
- each stage is practiced until fear is extinguished

Question 10

Flooding

Answer 10

• immediate exposure to feared stimulus
• patients are prevented from avoiding the phobic stimulus
• relaxation techniques are practised and new stimulus
• anxiety eventually subsides as adrenaline levels naturally start to decrease (1-3 hours)
• this is practiced until the fear is extinguished as the patient will remain calm around the phobic stimulus
• this can be done in vivo (real life) or in vitro ( virtual reality)

Question 11

Effectiveness

Answer 11

a treatment is effective if it alleviayes the symptoms of the diorder it is trying to treat

Question 12

Appropriateness

Answer 12

a treatment is appropriate if it is effective, efficient, and ethical; and if the xpected benefits outweigh the expected costs

Question 13

Beck’s Negatuve Triad

Answer 13

• 3 negative self schemas acquired during childhood: negative view of self, future and world
• depression is caused by faulty informational processing and irrational thinking
• these negative schemas are activated whenever a new situation is encountered

Question 14

Ellis’ ABC Model

Answer 14

• proposed that depression is due to irrational thinking and that the source of this is mustabatory thinking: the thinking that certain ideas or beliefs must be true in order to be happy
• A: activating event, B: beliefs, C: consequences

Question 15

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)

Answer 15

• general aim is to change negative schemas and irrational thoughts
• cognitive and behavioural element
• reality testing of beliefs encourages reflection on patient behaviour so they can recognise their own faulty cognitions

Question 16

Beck’s Cognitive Therapy

Answer 16

• identify automatic thoughts about the three negative schemas
• ‘patient as scientist’ - generate hypotheses to test validity of irrational thought which will be challenged directly with the therapist
• reality testing is done for homework allowing them to question the negativ beliefs and prove them incorrect

Question 17

Rational Emotive Behavioural Therapy (REBT) (Ellis, 1962)

Answer 17

• type of CBT based on ABC model extended to ABCDEF
• most important is D: disputing and challenging irrational beliefs
• 3 types of disputing: logical (does this make sense?), empirical (where is the proof?), pragmatic (is this useful?)

Question 18

The COMT Gene

Answer 18

• regulates production of dopamine in synapse
• involved in reward, motivation + motor control
• form that is common with OCD is low level activity which results in higher levels of dopamine

Question 19

The SERT Gene

Answer 19

• regulates transport of serotonin in synapse
• involved in feelings of well being and happiness
• form of gene that is common with OCD is high level activity which results in lower levels of serotonin because reuptake mechanism works too hard

Question 20

The Worry Circuit: The Frontal Lobe

Answer 20

• people with OCD tend to have high levels of activity in orbital frontal cortex (OFC)
• OFC sends ‘worry’ signals to thalamus which is alerted and confirms ‘worry’ back to OFC
• in neurotypical brain ‘worry’ signal is suppressed by the caudate nucleus however in atypical brain cuadate nuleus is impaired allowing neural activity
• caudate nucleus’ inability to filter small worries results in worry circuit being overreactive

Question 21

Role of Serotonin on Neuroanatomy

Answer 21

• plays key role in operation of OFC and caudate nucleus
• abnormally low levels of serotonin might cause this area to malfunction

Question 22

Role of Dopamine on Neuroanatomy

Answer 22

• main neurotransmitter of basal ganglia
• high levels of dapamine leads to overactivity in this region
• this is associated with OCD

Question 23

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)

Answer 23

• Antidepressant drugs increase serotonin levels at synapses in the ‘worry circuit’ to help with reducing the anxiety associated with the obsessions in OCD.
• SSRIs block the reuptake of serotonin at the presynaptic membrane, increasing serotonin concentration at receptor sites on the postsynaptic membrane.

Question 24

Tricyclic Antidepressants

Answer 24

• These were the first antidepressants used for OCD and now they are used more for OCD than depression.
• Tricyclics block the transporter mechanism that re-absorbs both serotonin and noradrenaline into the presynaptic cell after it has fired. As a result, more of the neurotransmitters are left in the synapse and their activity is prolonged.

Question 25

Benzodiazepine Anxiolytics

Answer 25

• These drugs are known as anxiolytics, in that they reduce anxiety.
• These work by slowing down the activity of the CNS by enhancing the activity of the neurotransmitter GABA (which regulates excitement and has a general quieting effect on many neurons in the brain).