pyschopathology Flashcards
what is psychopathology?
the study of psychological disorder
what are the two ways on deciding if a person’s behaviour and/or psychological state are sufficiently unusual to justify diagnosing and treating them for psychological disorder?
statistical infrequency
deviation from social norms
what is statistical infrequency?
occurs when an individual has a less common characteristic (e.g being more depressed or less intelligent) than most of the population
how is the statistical infrequency approach used when measuring intelligence?
average IQ = 100
in a normal distribution, most people (68%) have a score of 85-115
only 2% of people have a score below 70 (these people are considered abnormal and are liable to recieve a diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder)
evaluation: how is it a strength that statistical infrequency is useful?
(give an example of statistical infrequency)
used in clinical practice as a part of formal diagnosis and a way to assess the severity of symptoms.
e.g diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder requires an IQ of below 70 (bottom 2%)
example of statistical infrequency: Beck depression inventory (score of 30+ [top 5% respondents] is widely interpreted as severe depression)
shows that the value of statistical infrequency criterion is useful in diagnostic and assessment processes
evaluation: how is it a limitation that infrequent characteristics can be positive as well as negative?
for every person with an IQ below 70 there is another with an IQ above 130
these examples show that being unusual or at one end of a psychological spectrum does not make someone abnormal (we wouldn’t think someone abnormal for having a high IQ or someone with a low depression score on the BDI as abnormal)
means that although statistical infrequency can form part of assessment and diagnostic procedures, it is never sufficient as the sole basis for defining abnormality
what is deviation from social norms?
concerns behaviour that is different from the accepted standards of behaviour in a community or society
how are social norms specific to the cultures we live in?
social norms may be different for each generation for each generation and different in every culture (relatively few behaviours that are universally considered abnormal)
e.g homosexuality was considered abnormal in out culture in the past and continues to be viewed as abnormal (and illegal) in some cultures
(april 2019 brunei introduced new laws that make sex between men an offence punishable by stoning to death)
what is an example of deviation from social norms?
person w antisocial personality disorder (psychopathy) is impulsive, aggressive and irresponsible
according to DSM-5 (manual used to diagnose mental disorder) one important symptom of antisocial personality disorder is ‘an absence of prosocial internal standards associated with failure to conform to lawful and culturally normative ethical behaviour’
showing psychopathy would be considered abnormal in many cultures
evaluation: how is it a strength that deviation from social norms is useful?
used in clinical practice
e.g key defining characteristic of antisocial personality disorder is failure to conform to culturally acceptable ethical behaviour (recklessness, aggression) and are all deviations from social norms
shows that the deviation from social norms criterion has value in psychiatry
evaluation: how is the variability of social norms in different cultures and situations a limitation?
person from one culture group may label someone from another group as abnormal using their standards rather than the person’s standard.
e.g experience of hearing voices in norm in some cultures (msgs from ancestors) but would be seen as a sign of abnormality in most parts of UK
means it is difficult to judge deviation from social norms across different situation and cultures
what is meant by ‘failure to function adequately’ ?
occurs when someone is unable to cope with ordinary demands of day to day living
(e.g unable to maintain basic standards of nutrition and hygiene, cannot hold jobs or maintain with relationships around them)
what were the signs proposed by Rosenhan and Seligmqan (1989) that can be used to determine if someone is failing to function adequately?
- when a person no longer conforms to standard interpersonal rules (e.g maintaining eye contact and respecting personal space)
- when a person experiences severe personal distress
- when a persons behaviour becomes irrational or dangerous to themselves or others
evaluation: how is it a strength that the failure to function criterion that it represents a sensible threshold for when people need professional help?
25% of people in the UK will experience a mental health problem in any given year - mental health charity Mind
however many people press on in the face of severe mental symptoms and it tends to be at the point that we cease to function adequately that people seek professional help or referred for help by others
means the criterion means that treatment and services can be targeted to those who need them the most
evaluation: how is it a limitation of failure to function that it is easy to label non-standard lifestyle choices as abnormal?
it can be difficult to determine when someone is failing to function and when they have simply chosen to deviate from social norms (e.g New Age travellers who don’t work or live in a permanent accommodation, spiritualists who take part in religious rituals and communicate with the dead)
people who make unusual choices and have alternative lifestyles are at risk of being labelled abnormal and their freedom of choice may be restricted and they could be discriminated against.
what is deviation from mental health?
occurs when someone does not meet a set of criteria for good mental health
What is the criteria of ideal mental health suggested by Jahoda (1958)?
- no symptoms or distress, can cope with stress
- are rational and can perceive ourselves accurately, can self-actualise (strive to reach our potential)
- have a realistic view of the world, good self esteem and lack guilt
- independent of other people, can successfully work, love and enjoy our leisure
evaluation: how is it a strength that the ideal mental health criterion is highly comprehensive?
it covers most of the reasons why we might seek or be referred for help with mental health (means an individuals mental health can be discussed meaningfully with a range of professionals who might take different theoretical views
means that the ideal mental health provides a checklist against which we can assess ourselves and others and discuss psychological issues with a range of professionals
evaluation: how is it a limitation that its different not equally applicable across a range of cultures?
some of jahoda’s criteria for ideal mental health are firmly located in the context of of the US and Europe
the concept of self actualisation would be dismissed as self indulgent in much of the world
in Europe there is variation in the value placed on personality independence e.g high in Germany and low in Italy
Meaning it is difficult to apply the concept of ideal mental health from one culture to another
what is a phobia?
an irrational fear of an object or situation
what are the categories of phobia and related anxiety disorder recognised by DSM-5?
SPECIFIC PHOBIA: phobia of an object (animal or body part) or a situation (flying or injections)
SOCIAL PHOBIA: phobia of asocial situation such as public speaking or using a public toilet
AGORAPHOBIA: phobia of being outside or in a public place
what are the behavioural characteristics of phobias?
PANIC
AVOIDANCE
ENDURANCE
how is panic shown as a behavioural characteristic of phobias?
PANIC: person w phobia may panic in response to phobic stimulus by showing. range of behaviours: crying, screaming running away
children may react differently by freezing, clinging or having a tantrum
how is avoidance shown as a behavioural characteristic of phobias?
person w phobia puts a lot of effort to prevent coming into contact with the phobic stimulus (unless they are making a conscious effort to face their fears)
e.g someone w a fear of public toilets may have to limit the time they spend outside the home in relation to how long they can last without a toilet
-> interferes with work, education and social life
how is endurance shown as a behavioural characteristic of phobias?
endurance = the alternative behavioural response to avoidance, occurs when the person chooses to remain in the presence of the phobic stimulus
e.g person w arachnophobia may choose to stay in a room with a spider on the ceiling and keep a wary eye on it than leaving
what are the emotional characteristics of phobias?
ANXIETY
FEAR
EMOTIONAL RESPONSE = UNREASONABLE
how is anxiety an emotional characteristic of phobias?
phobias are classes as anxiety disorders
involves an emotional response of anxiety, an unpleasant state of high arousal
prevents a person from relaxing and makes it very difficult to experience any positive emotion
can be long term
how is fear an emotional characteristic of phobias?
fear = the immediate and extremely unpleasant response we experience when we encounter or think abt a phobic stimulus
usually more intense but experienced for shorter periods than anxiety
how is an ‘emotional response being unreasonable’ an emotional characteristic of phobias?
the anxiety or fear is much greater than normal and disproportionate to any threat posed
e.g person w arachnophobia will have a strong emotional response to a very tiny spider
what are the cognitive characteristics of phobias? (concerned w the ways people process information)
SELECTIVE ATTENTION TO PHOBIC STIMULUS
IRRATIONAL BELIEFS
COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS
how is selective attention to the phobic stimulus shown as a cognitive characteristic of phobias?
if a person sees the phobic stimulus it is hard to look away from it:
keeping an eye on smth dangerous is good as it gives the person a chance to react quickly to a threat
when the fear is irrational, not useful e.g person w pogonophobia will not be able to focus if there is a person with a beard in the room
how is irrational beliefs shown as a cognitive characteristic of phobias?
person w a phobia may hold unfounded thoights in relation to phobic stimuli that cannot be easily explained or do not have basis in reality
e.g person w social phobias may thin “i must always sound intelligent’ / ‘if i blush they think i’m weak’
these beliefs increase the pressure on the person to perform well in social situations
how is cognitive distortions shown as a cognitive characteristic of phobias?
the perceptions of a erson w phobia may be inaccurate and unrealistic
e.g person w mycophobia sees mushrooms as disgusting
what does the ‘2 process model’ proposed by Mowrer (1960) suggest?
based on behavioural approach to phobias
states that phobias are acquired by classical conditioning and continue because of operant conditioning
what is classical conditioning?
learning by association
occurs when unconditioned stimulus (unlearned) and neutral stimulus are repeatedly paired together
NS eventually produced same response as the US alone
how did watson and rayner (1920) produce a phobia in a 9 month old baby called ‘little albert’?
albert had no fear of white rats, but when shown one researched banged an iron bar (sound = UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS) CREATING AN UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE OF FEAR
when rat was shown, albert displayed fear as the NS becomes associated w UCS, so rat became conditioned stimulus
became generalised to similar objects e.g non-white rabbit, fur coat
what is operant conditioning?
form of learning where behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences
includes negative or positive reinforcement
how are phobias maintained by operant conditioning?
responses attained by Classical conditioning tend to decline overtime but phobias are long lasting
reinforcement increases frequency of behaviour
e.g negative reinforcement, individual avoids a situation that is unpleasant and this results in a desirable consequence, which means behaviour is repeated
when we avoid phobic stimulus we escape fear n anxiety so reduction in fear reinforces avoidance behaviour and phobia is maintained
eval: how is it a strength that there is real world application?
real world application in exposure therapies
model suggests phobias are mainatined by avoidance of phobic stimulus so people w phobias benefit from being exposed to them
can cure phobia
shows value of model as it identifies a means of treating phobias
eval: how is it a limitation that the model does not account for the cognitive aspect of phobias?
phobias have significant cognitive components as well as being avoidance responses
e.g people hold irrational beliefs about phobic stimulus
2 process model does not offer adequate explanation for phobic cognitions
means that model does not completely explain the symptoms of phobias
eval: how is it a strength that the 2 process model is evidence for the link between bad experiences and phobias?
little albert study shows how a frightening experience involving a stimulus can lead to phobia of that stimulus
jongh et al. found that 73% of ppl w fear of dental treatment had traumatic experience involving dentistry (compared to control group of low dental anxiety where only 21% had traumatic experience)
confirms that that the association between stimulus (dentistry) and UCR (pain) does lead to the development of phobias
eval: what is a counterpoint to the 2 process model being evidence for the link between bad experiences and phobias
not all phobias have a bad experience, e.g common phobias such as snakes occur in populations whee very few people have had any experience of snakes
means the association between phobias and frightening experiences is not as strong as we should expect is behavioural theories provided a complete explanation
what is systematic desensitisation?
behavioural therapy designed to gradually reduce phobic anxiety through the principle of classical conditioning
person can learn to relax in the presence of phobic stimulus and learn to be cured
phobic stimulus is paired wit relaxation instead of anxiety - counter conditioning
what are the 3 processes involved with SD?
- anxiety hierarchy
- relaxation
- exposure
