Qualitative Research Methods Flashcards
(95 cards)
1
Q
Paradigms in social research
A
Positivism
interpretive/relativist :
- Social constructivsm
- Subjectivism
2
Q
Positivism
A
natural science, identifies cause and effect relationships
= The approach is objective means that the relationship always applies –> not limited to a place or time
= every researcher who has this issue will research the same conclusion
3
Q
Social constructivism
A
constructing reality, not just explaining and describing
4
Q
Research approaches
A
- Positivist
- Interpretative
5
Q
Positivist: main objective
A
The empirical acquisition of “positive” findings, i.e., actual, sensually perceptible and mostly quantitatively verifiable findings
6
Q
Positivist: Research methods
A
Surveys,experiments, meta-analyses, etc
7
Q
Interpretative: Main objective
A
The empirical acquisition of “interpretive” insights, i.e., qualitative findings that are often subject to subjective interpretations
8
Q
Interpretative: Research methods
A
Interviews, observation, ethnography, etc
9
Q
Positivist approaches: Research objective
A
Prediction
10
Q
Positivist approaches: Nature of reality
A
Objective & unambiguous
11
Q
Positivist approaches: Generated knowledge
A
Independent of time and context
12
Q
Positivist approaches: Causality
A
Existence of causes
13
Q
Positivist approaches: Research relationship
A
Distinction between the researcher and the research subject
14
Q
Interpretative approaches: Research objective
A
Understanding
15
Q
Interpretative approaches: Nature of reality
A
Subjective & socially constructed
16
Q
Interpretative approaches: Generated
knowledge
A
Time- and context-dependent
17
Q
Interpretative approaches: causality
A
Multiple, simultaneous influences
18
Q
Interpretative approaches: Research relationship
A
The researcher is interactively and
cooperatively part of the research
subject
19
Q
Qualitative research: definition
A
is the systematic collection and evaluation of non- standardized data. In most cases, a small, non-representative sample is used with
the aim of gaining in-depth insights into the research object
20
Q
Characteristics of qualitative research
A
- Small number cases
- Openness
- Theory building
- Subjectivity
- Interaction
- Flexibility
- Communication
- Interpretation
- Reflexivity
21
Q
Qualitative research: definition
A
In-depth analysis and understanding of a
phenomenon
22
Q
Qualitative research: Objective
A
Development of new theories
23
Q
Qualitative research: Approach
A
Predominantly “inductive”
24
Q
Qualitative research: Data collection
A
Non-standard data collection
25
Qualitative research: Evaluation
Interpretative evaluation
26
Qualitative research: Number of cases
Small case numbers to respond more
strongly to individual cases
27
Quantitative research: Definition
Systematic recording of an accurate snippet of
reality
28
Quantitative research: Objective
Testing of existing theories/hypotheses
29
Quantitative research: Approach
Predominantly “deductive“
30
Quantitative research: Data collection
Standardized data collection
31
Quantitative research: Evaluation
Statistical analysis
32
Quantitative research: Number of cases
Large numbers of cases to explain causal
relationships
33
Design of qualitative studies
1. Definition of the research question
2. Selection of the research method
3. Sample selection and recruitment of participants
4. Collection and transcription of qualitative data
5. Coding of data
6. Evaluation and interpretation of the qualitative codes
7. Theory building and compilation of results
34
A qualitative interview
is a method of empirical social research that uses a non-directive, qualitative, personal conversation to capture essential attitudes and opinions of the interviewee on the research topic
35
Types of qualitative interviews
- Unstructured Interviews
- Semi-structured Interviews
- Structured Interviews
36
Unstructured Interviews
* No interview guide
* Informant provides structure
* Wide range of topics
* Focus on narratives
* Highly exploratory
* Very time-consuming
* Difficult to analyze
37
Semi-structured Interviews
* Flexible interview guide
* Open-ended, dynamic questions
* Researcher and informant shape structure together
* Coherent flow of topics
* Time-consuming
* Complex to analyze
38
Structured Interviews
* Detailed, inflexible interview guide
* Researcher provides structure
* Special topic focus
* Fast & efficient
* Often superficial data
* Easy to analyze
39
Focus groups: definition
is a moderated discussion of several participants, which is based on a semi-structured interview guide
40
Focus group: principles
communication, openness, dynamics, familiarity/strangeness, and reflexivity
41
Focus groups : goal
Recording discussions, group dynamics and language use
42
Focus groups: Setup
6-12 participants, personal meeting at a predefined location
43
Focus groups: Application example
Market & consumer research
44
Methods of qualitative data collection
1. Interviews
2. Observations
3. Document analysis
4. Focus group
5. Case studies
6. Ethnography
45
Semi-structured interviewing: question
From the general to the specific
46
Semi-structured interviewing: question types
focus on “how” and “why” questions;
Avoidance of leading questions as well as “yes/no” questions
47
Semi-structured interviewing: Question flow
Focus and switch between topics depending
on the course of the discussion
48
Semi-structured interviewing: Active listening and empathy
- Displaying active listening without interruption, e.g., by repeating content; short statements such as “ah”, “yes”, “right”; non-verbal expression such as humming, nodding,
raising eyebrows, silence, etc
- Check whether the question has been understood correctly, e.g., by summaries; clarification questions such as “In what sense...?”; Reformulation of the question, etc
49
Design of qualitative interviews
- Openness and transparency: You never know for sure who a good informant is
- Learning environment: expression of cultural ignorance; make it clear that you want to learn something
- Reflexivity: Conscious handling of one's own influence as a researcher on the findings
- Location: Digital or In-Person; if possible, the choice can be left to the informant
- Time: Clarification of the rough time required before the start of the interview (e.g., approx. 1 hour for an in-depth interview)
- Recording: Audio recorder / video recorder / notes (obtain the informant's prior consent)
- Observation & context: Possible addition of non-involved observers; additional recording of room design, body language,
background music, etc.
50
Observations: 2 types
- Participating observation
- Non participating observation
51
Participating observation
- Direct participation of the researcher in the action
of the research object
- Observations are subjectively influenced or
distorted by the researcher
- Investigation of socio-cultural contexts
52
Non-participating observation
- No direct participation of the researcher
- Descriptive, objective observation
- Systematic analysis of practices, behaviors,
decisions, etc
53
Document analysis (Objective, Set up, Application)
Objective: Analysis of data that is already available as a document (e.g., in archives)
Set-up : Evaluation of existing documents such as magazines, transcripts of conversations, photographs
Application example: Organizational research
54
Qualitative case studies (Objective, Setup, Application)
Objective : Detailed investigation of a research subject in a real environment
Setup : Analysis of individual cases, such as a company, a brand, an event, through a combination of research methods (e.g., interviews, observations, archive
documents)
Application: Market research
55
Ethnography (Objective, Setup, Application example)
Objective: Research of (everyday) cultures by analysing typical forms of interaction and life, practices and rituals
Setup: The researcher participates in the everyday life of the researched persons themselves (in particular through participant observation and supplementary interviews)
Application example : Consumer research
56
Qualitative sample: definition
is the selection of a subset from the population to be
examined using qualitative methods
--> people, groups, interactions, or events
57
Qualitative sample selection
- Theoretical sampling
- Selective sampling
- Purposive sampling
58
Theoretical sampling: definition
focuses on the development of a theory from qualitative data
59
Theoretical sampling: selection of persons or research cases
carried out in theoretical sampling in the process of data
collection and evaluation
60
Theoretical saturation
when the further cases and analyses no longer provide
any new insights --> selection is terminated
61
scope, size, and characteristics of the sample can't be ...
specified at the beginning
62
Selective sampling; definition
determines the relevant selection criteria depending on the question
63
Selective sampling; criteria
gender, age and education; these are defined independently of the material examined and before data collection
64
Selective sampling: comparison dimensions
important for the question are usually identified (e.g.,
large vs. small companies; employees and managers).
65
Selective sampling; aim
capture the relevant phenomena and experiences in the field under investigation as broadly as possible
66
Purposive sampling: definition
the investigated cases/persons are specifically selected on the basis of their relevance to the research question
67
Purposive sampling: aim
construct a sample that is reasonably suitable because it contains certain features that contribute to the development or deepening of the theory under investigation
68
Examples of purposive samples
extreme cases, maximum variation, typical cases, politically important cases or easily accessible cases
69
Qualitative sample size: Scope
No uniform opinion/specification in the literature: In practice, usually between 10 and 100 people, depending on the question, method and difficulty
of accessing the sample
70
Qualitative sample size: Comparison
Sample size generally significantly smaller than with quantitative methods
71
Qualitative sample size: Main criterion
achievement of "theoretical saturation" through data
collection; In this respect, it is difficult to determine in advance how many people are to be recruited for qualitative research
72
Qualitative sample size: Spectrum
Larger samples are needed when looking at a broader range of topics
73
Qualitative sample size: conclusion
Data interpretation taking into account the sample under
consideration
74
Access to the sample
- Covert vs. overt research (Does the respondent/observed person know about the data collection?)
- Digital vs. face-to-face: Access to the sample
- Social barriers (e.g., age, gender, education, class)
- Structural barriers (e.g., access to top management)
- Organizational barriers (e.g., geographical distance, time required)
!!! Attention: Think in advance about your role and influence as a researcher in the field!
75
Analysis of qualitative data
the process of labeling and decomposing (or decontextualizing) raw data and then reconstituting it into categories, patterns, themes, concepts, and sentences
76
Process of data analysis
1. Transcription
2. Coding
3. Theory Building
77
Transcription of qualitative data: definition
transcription of spoken, sometimes non-verbal
communication that has been recorded on video or sound carriers
78
Transcription: Practical implementation
- Complete transcription of (non-)verbal communication (e.g.: “Yes, I think that's right.”)
- Timestamps are helpful (e.g., set at least once per minute)
- Transcription is time-consuming (especially of spoken dialect)
- Transcription is not subject to grammar (i.e., this also applies to punctuation marks)
- The use of transcription marks creates clarity and structure, such as:
▪ [ ] for comments from the transcriber – [laughs]
▪ (X) to indicate long breaks
▪ (...) in case of uncertainty / incomprehensibility of the exact wording
79
Qualitative data coding: definition
the “critical link” between data collection and data
analysis, i.e., their explanation of meaning.
80
Qualitative data coding: goal
build a theory based on the qualitative data (voir page 41)
81
Coding: definition
The assignment of a label (word, sentence or sequence of letters - called “code”) to a section of text to identify the presence of a topic or idea relevant to the research question.
82
Memos: definition
The capture of reflective thoughts/ideas about the collected data or the assigned codes, which serve as a basis for data interpretation/theory building.
83
Steps of data coding
1. Open coding
2. Axial coding
3. Selective coding
84
Open coding
describing, naming or classifying the phenomenon under
consideration by means of individual words or a short sequence of words = “In-Vivo Codes”.
85
Axial coding
the process of interpreting existing codes and relating them to each other through horizontal comparison to derive theoretical concepts
86
Selective coding
further data will be selectively sampled and coded to identify the essential categories of concepts for theoretical condensation
87
Possible methods of qualitative data analysis
1. Qualitative Content Analysis
2. Grounded Theory
88
Qualitative Content Analysis according to Mayring: definition
a structured procedure for the rule-guided
evaluation of qualitative data (e.g., transcripts of
interviews, newspaper articles, images or video
recordings).
89
Qualitative Content Analysis according to Mayring : 3 central basic characteristics
(a) Summary
(b) Explication
(c) Structuring
90
Grounded Theory
is a qualitative research method
that uses a series of systematic process steps to inductively derive a theory about a phenomenon based on qualitative data
--> create a new theory
91
Rules of thumb of Grounded Theory
1. Inductive Method : Theory development based on
qualitative data (theoretical sampling).
2. Comparative Analysis: Iterative change of data
collection, analysis and evaluation
3. Theoretical Coding: Translating data into theoretical
concepts through systemic coding
92
Application of qualitative research
- Opinion poll: Determination of public opinion (insights, attitude, moods or wishes of the population)
- Organizational research: Use of qualitative methods for the research and improvement of organizational structures such as Leadership cultures, communication processes or workflows
- Market research : Collection, analysis and interpretation of qualitative data on markets and consumers for the purpose of obtaining information for marketing decisions
- Ideation & problem validation : Validation of new ideas through the use of qualitative data e.g in the context of design processes or innovative start ups
93
Decision-making for your research thesis: 3 questions
1. What is the research about?
2. How much literature is available?
3. What is to be achieved?
94
Qualitative research : Answer to the 3 questions
- What is the research about? A few concrete individual cases that are evaluated interpretative
- How much literature is available? Rather little literature available
- What is to be achieved? Coming up with a new theory
95
Quantitative research : Answer to the 3 questions
- What is the research about? In order to have as many cases as possible that are statically evaluated
- How much literature is available? Usually a lot of literature available
- What is to be achieved? Testing an existing theory
