Question Paper revision Flashcards
(21 cards)
Outline the way in which Pavlov studied classical conditioning. (4)
- detail of Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiments into salivation reflex in dogs
- knowledge of Pavlovian concepts in the context of Pavlov’s experiments: unconditioned
stimulus; conditioned stimulus; unconditioned response; conditioned response - detail of Pavlovian theory – learning by association; temporal association/contiguity.
What is meant by the term ecological validity? (2)
the extent to which behaviours observed and recorded in a study reflect the behaviours that
actually occur in the real world.
Using your knowledge of genotype and phenotype, explain Lily’s and Jemima’s comments. (4)
- Lily and Jemima have identical genotypes (genotype refers to the genetic make-up of an individual)
- Lily and Jemima do not have identical phenotypes (phenotype refers to the observable characteristics
of an individual as a result of their genotype and their environment) - although Lily and Jemima have the same genes, Jemima might practice netball more or have started
lessons earlier than Lily, these environmental factors may make her better at netball - although Lily and Jemima have the same genes, Jemima might have a different skin care
routine/diet/sun exposure/etc than Lily, these environmental factors may make her skin clearer than Lily’s.
Use your knowledge of two types of reinforcement to suggest how Lily and Jemima could train their rat to come to the cage door when they open it. (6)
positive reinforcement – when Lily/Jemima open the cage door they can give the rat treats like
chocolate drops for coming to the cage door when they open it. This will make the rat more likely to
come to the door the next time they open the cage
* negative reinforcement – have something unpleasant like spraying the rat with water or playing loud
music/alarm and then stop this when the rat comes to the door so that over time when they open the
cage the rat will be more likely to come to the door
* schedules of reinforcement – applied to training Lily and Jemima’s rat.
Compare the humanistic approach with the psychodynamic approach. (8)
determinism – the humanistic approach assumes people have free choice over their behaviour,
whereas the psychodynamic approach assumes that behaviour is determined by unconscious factors
(beyond conscious control)
* nature/nurture – the humanistic approach assumes behaviour is affected by desire to self-actualise
(nature) and our experience can provide barriers to this through conditions of worth and varying
experience of conditional positive regard (nurture). Likewise, the psychodynamic approach assumes
behaviour is driven by unconscious forces, eg id/ego/superego dynamics (nature) but our coping
mechanisms such as defence mechanisms arise from experience (nurture)
* methodology – both are much less scientific than other approaches (but the psychodynamic approach
assumes that some aspects of behaviour can be investigated scientifically)
* therapy – Rogers believed that counselling (utilising unconditional positive regard) can be used to help
clients solve their problems, overcome conditions of worth and enable their potential for selfactualisation, whereas Freud believed that psychoanalysis can lead to improvements in clients
through psychotherapy.
Describe the structure and function of a neuron (6)
Neurons enable communication within the nervous system
* the cell body (soma) contains the genetic material
* branch-like dendrites extend from the cell body (often with dendritic spines)
* dendrites carry functional information towards the cell body
* dendrites can receive information from other neurons
* axons carry messages away from the cell body
* axons can be myelinated to increase speed of nerve transmission (saltatory conduction between
nodes of Ranvier)
* terminal boutons are at the end of axons, these make synaptic connections with other cells
* axon terminals contain neurotransmitters.
Outline the difference in function between Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area. (2)
Broca’s area is responsible for speech production whereas Wernicke’s area is responsible for
language comprehension
* Broca’s area enables speech to be fluent whereas Wernicke’s area enables speech to be meaningful.
Discuss ways of studying the brain (16)
fMRI data is complex and can be affected by the baseline task used and how the data is
interpreted
* fMRIs have low temporal resolution and research is expensive leading to low sample sizes
which can reduce the validity of studies
* post-mortem examinations require special permission to be conducted which often leads to
small sample sizes
* post-mortem examinations can be affected by changes which occur during/after death
* post-mortem examinations enable deeper regions of the brain to be investigated than
non-invasive techniques
* EEGs and ERPs are cheaper than fMRIs so enable larger sample sizes which can increase the
validity of the data obtained
* EEGs and ERPs have poorer spatial resolution than fMRIs
* unlike post-mortem examinations, neuroimaging techniques allow the active brain to be
investigated during specific tasks/activities
* research studies used to evaluate techniques described.
Explain one way in which the researcher might deal with the deception in this study (2)
at the end of the study students should be given a full debrief where they are made aware that the
sleep data provided was manipulated
once students had been informed that the sleep data had been manipulated, they should be given the
right to withdraw their data if they would like to.
Explain one limitation of assessing sleep quality using a rating scale of 1–10. (2)
- sleep quality is subjective and so may be interpreted differently by each student
- a rating of 3, for example, might mean something different for different students
- students are not able to explain their rating.
Describe how the researcher could have used random sampling to obtain the students
for this study. (3)
- collect the names of all the 1st year students at the researcher’s university
- put all the students’ names into a hat/computer random name generator
- select a name in an unbiased manner to include as students in the experiment, repeat this until 18
names have been selected.
Discuss features of science. Refer to one or more examples of psychological research
in your answer.
objectivity and the empirical method
* replicability and falsifiability
* theory construction and hypothesis testing
* paradigms and paradigm shifts.
Possible application/discussion:
* use of research studies/theories/approaches to discuss the features of science
* comparison of approaches to discuss features of science, eg Freud’s psychodynamic approach is
unfalsifiable
* difficulties of the subjective nature of psychological investigations
* prevalent paradigms, eg behaviourism in 1920s onwards, 1970s paradigm shift – the cognitive
revolution.
Outline Wundt’s method of introspection. (3 Marks)
- introspection is a systematic analysis of one’s own conscious experience
- experiences are analysed in terms of their component parts/reference to ‘structuralism’
- these parts are elements like sensation, emotional reactions etc
- people were trained to do this analysis to make the data objective rather than subjective
- people were presented with standardised sensory events like a ticking metronome and asked to report
their reactions.
Outline one difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
[2 marks]
the response is involuntary in CC but voluntary in OC
* responses are reinforced in OC but not in CC
* CC explains acquisition of response, OC explains maintenance of response
* CC is is learning by association between two stimuli in time, whereas operant conditioning is learning
by association between response and consequence’.
Explain one assumption of the cognitive approach.
[3 marks]
- psychology should be the study of internal mental processes, eg memory, perception, etc
- the importance of the role of schema
- it is appropriate to make inferences about cognitive processes
- the use of models of explanation – theoretical and computer
- the possibility of combining cognitive processes and biological structures (cognitive neuroscience).
Explain one limitation of the cognitive approach.
[3 marks]
- reliance on inference which is not objective
- machine reductionism of computer modelling
- use of scientific methods: limitations of these
- use of case studies: limitations of these.
Outline two characteristics of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Refer to Sami in your
answer.
[4 marks]
- irrational belief/catastrophic thought/obsession – Sami thinking her family are in danger or she might
make them ill - feelings of extreme anxiety – being terrified of germs
- performing repetitive actions/compulsions – washing food items three times/not touching food with bare hands
Explain why it would not be appropriate to conclude that therapy increases well-being
ratings.
[2 marks]
- there was no manipulation of an IV, therefore cause and effect between therapy and well-being cannot
be inferred - a third, untested variable may be causing the positive relationship between therapy and well-being.
Briefly outline flooding as a treatment for phobias.
[2 marks]
- exposure/bombardment to phobic stimulus (without avoidance)
- until anxiety subsides/extinction of fear response occurs.
Briefly outline flooding as a treatment for phobias.
[2 marks]
- exposure/bombardment to phobic stimulus (without avoidance)
- until anxiety subsides/extinction of fear response occurs.
Outline and evaluate the biological approach to explaining and/or treating
obsessive-compulsive disorder.
[12 marks]
Explanation
* genetic vulnerability to OCD
* specific candidate genes eg gene 9, COMT gene, SERT gene, 5HT1-D beta gene
* OCD appears polygenic with up to 230 genes involved
* low levels of neurotransmitters eg serotonin may be removed too quickly from the synapse before
impulses have been passed on
* communication within certain areas of the brain (e.g. the basal ganglia system) is disturbed and might
account for the repetitive behaviours seen in OCD
* abnormal activity in the orbital frontal cortex/thalamus related to impaired decision making
* abnormal functioning of the parahippocampal gyrus related to the regulation of unpleasant emotions.
Treatment
* use of drug therapy to ‘correct’ imbalance of neurochemicals, eg serotonin, to reduce symptoms
* SSRIs – prevent the reabsorption and breakdown of serotonin in the brain, continue to stimulate the
postsynaptic neuron
* typical daily dosage, eg Fluoxetine (an SSRI) which may be increased if not benefitting the patient as
appropriate
* timescale – typically 3–4 months of daily use for SSRIs to impact upon symptoms
* alternatives to SSRIs – tricyclics, SNRIs
* other drugs – benzodiazepines for general relaxation.
MARK SCHEME – AS PSYCHOLOGY – 7181/2 – JUNE 2020
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Credit other relevant information.
Possible evaluation
Explanation
* use of evidence to support/contradict biological explanations of OCD, eg Nestadt et al. (2010)
* findings from twin/family studies could be explained by shared environments as well as shared genes
* little predictive validity due to the vast number of candidate genes identified
* improvement rates from use of SSRIs are only 50% so low serotonin cannot be the sole cause
* problems with cause and effect with neural explanations
* neurophysiological factors are not consistent between sufferers
* some explanations relate only to one aspect/characteristic of the disorder so do not offer a complete
explanation of OCD.
Treatment
* use of evidence to support/contradict effectiveness of drug treatments, eg Soomro et al. (2009)
* many patients are not helped by drug treatment
* reasoned discussion of cost, time, etc, eg with reference to alternative treatments such as CBT, ERP,
etc
* discussion of possible side-effects, eg weight gain, sexual dysfunction, etc
* reliability of evidence, eg vested interest of drug companies (Goldacre, 2013)
* delayed effects of drugs - patients may look to other treatment options
* not all case of OCD may be biological in origin, eg influence of trauma, etc.
