Psychology Paper 1

Question 1

Describe how Zimbardo investigated conformity to social roles (4 Marks)

Answer 1

Set up mock prison in the basement of Stanford University
Observational study – controlled, participant, overt
emotionally stable volunteers were assigned to roles of either prisoner or guard
Prisoners ‘arrested’, blindfolded, strip searched, etc
guards given a night stick, dark glasses, uniform etc and told to maintain order
Prisoners’ daily routines were heavily regulated by guards working in shifts
Dehumanisation of prisoners, eg wearing nylon stocking caps and numbered smocks, etc
The study was planned to run for two weeks, but was stopped early

Question 2

Fewer and fewer people use single-use plastic items, such as water bottles and plastic
straws.
Using your knowledge of social influence processes in social change, explain why fewer
and fewer people are using single-use plastic items. 6

Answer 2

Minority influence processes:
- Examples of the influence of environmental campaign groups/celebrities and how they may convince
- The majority through consistency, commitment (augmentation principle), flexibility
- The snowball effect – how behaviour/views on use of plastic change gradually over time.

Conformity processes:
- Normative social influence/compliance – the group norm among young people particularly is to care about the environment; people who go against this norm (by ignoring the costs to the planet) risk rejection from the group/are less likely to fit in
- Informational social influence/internalisation – more is now known about the harmful effects of
- Single-use plastic items on the environment/climate change, people may have become convinced by such evidence.

Obedience processes:
- Rules on single-use plastic items have changed, eg charges for plastic shopping bags, etc.

Question 3

A researcher wanted to investigate whether there was a relationship between locus of
control and resistance to social influence. Before the investigation began, he devised a
questionnaire to measure locus of control.
Why would the researcher’s questionnaire produce primary data? Suggest one limitation
of primary data. 2

Answer 3

Possible content:
- The questionnaire will be used to collect data specifically for the purpose of the investigation
- The questionnaire data will be gathered first-hand from the participants themselves.

Possible limitations:
- Requires time and effort on the part of the researcher (to develop resources, etc)
- May be costly compared to secondary data which can be easily accessed.

Question 4

To assess the questionnaire’s validity, the researcher gave it to 30 participants and
recorded the results. He then gave the same 30 participants an established questionnaire
measuring locus of control. The researcher found a weak positive correlation between the
two sets of results, suggesting that his questionnaire had low validity.
Explain how the validity of the researcher’s questionnaire could be improved. 4

Answer 4

• The researcher could compare the two questionnaires and note any differences
• The researcher could (identify and) remove/deselect any items on his questionnaire that are problematic
• Items might be problematic because they are leading, ambiguous, too complex, double-barrelled etc
• The researcher could incorporate a lie scale, so respondents are less aware that locus of control is being tested.

Question 5

Discuss legitimacy of authority as an explanation for obedience. 8

Answer 5

• When a person recognises their own and other’s positions in a social hierarchy
• Leading to recognition of the authority figure’s right to issue a demand
• Legitimacy is increased by visible symbols of authority, eg uniform
• Legitimacy of setting, order, system
• Description of relevant evidence, eg Milgram variations (location), Bickman (uniform).
• Accept other valid points.
• Use of evidence to support/contradict the explanations, eg Milgram variations, Bickman, Hofling
• Use of real-life examples to illustrate explanations, eg My Lai massacre
• Obedience may be dispositional, not situational, eg authoritarian personality
• Discussion of difficulty measuring and/or explaining why obedience occurs
• Cultural differences in respect for and responses to authority.

Question 6

Apart from the central executive, name and briefly outline two other components of the
working memory model. 4

Answer 6

• Visuo-spatial sketch/scratch pad – temporary storage of visual and spatial information; inner eye; visual coding; can hold 3–4 items; visual cache, visual scribe
• Phonological store/loop/articulatory loop/control process/primary acoustic store – limited capacity temporary storage system; holds acoustic information according to tone, volume, pitch, etc; inner ear;
• Verbal rehearsal loop, sub-vocal speech; duration 1.5–2 secs; inner voice
• Episodic buffer – integrates/synthesises information from other stores; link to LTM; modality free.

Question 7

Evaluate the central executive as part of the working memory model. 4

Answer 7

• Central executive is vague and untestable (despite being the component in overall charge)
• Central executive itself may be divided into separate sub-components
• Links with attention research – allocation of resources/divided attention/dual-tasking
• Use of evidence to support or contradict the central executive, eg Hunt (1980).

Question 8

Natasha had studied a lot for her A-level Drama performance, mostly practising lines from
a play alone in her room. However, once on stage in front of her teacher and the
examiners, Natasha struggled to remember her lines. Instead, she kept quoting lines from
a different play she had once learnt for GCSE.
Discuss retrieval failure and interference as explanations for forgetting. Refer to
Natasha’s drama performance in your answer. 16

Answer 8

• Forgetting is due to the absence of cues/tip-of-the-tongue forgetting
• Lack of external contextual cues – where environment for learning and recall is different (eg different room)
• Lack of internal contextual cues – where physical state for learning and recall is different (eg mood)
• Encoding specificity principle
• Description of relevant evidence, eg Godden and Baddeley.

Question 9

Annie feeds her newborn baby regularly and they have formed a strong bond.
According to the learning theory of attachment, before any attachment had been formed,
the milk Annie gives her baby is best described as:
A a conditioned stimulus.
B a neutral stimulus.
C an unconditioned response.
D an unconditioned stimulus.
1

Answer 9

D – an unconditioned stimulus.

Question 10

According to the learning theory of attachment, now she has formed an attachment with her
baby, Annie is best described as:
A a conditioned stimulus.
B a neutral stimulus.
C an unconditioned response.
D an unconditioned stimulus
1

Answer 10

A – a conditioned stimulus.

Question 11

Outline one difference in attachment behaviours shown by infants who have an
insecure-avoidant attachment and infants who have an insecure-resistant attachment 2

Answer 11

• Level of separation anxiety – low (avoidant) vs high (resistant)
• Level of stranger anxiety – low (avoidant) vs high (resistant)
• Response on reunion – indifference (avoidant) vs ambivalence (resistant)
• Proximity seeking – low/independent behaviour (avoidant) vs high/clingy (resistant).

Question 12

These different attachment types were first identified in Ainsworth’s ‘Strange Situation’. box
Evaluate the procedure known as the ‘Strange Situation’. 5

Answer 12

• controlled observation lacks ecological validity
• standardised procedure allows for replication
• sole focus on the mother-child relationship
• evidence, eg Bick et al, suggests inter-rater reliability is high
• culture-bound test/imposed etic
• original study used only three attachment types
• procedure may measure something other than attachment type, eg temperament
• discussion of the ethics of the study.

Question 13

Researchers investigated whether the experience of bullying is influenced by attachment
type. They interviewed teenagers about their early attachment experiences. Following the
interviews, the teenagers were categorised into two groups based on their attachment
type:
* Group 1 – secure attachment in childhood
* Group 2 – insecure attachment (insecure-avoidant or insecure-resistant) in childhood.
During the interview, the teenagers were also asked about their experience of bullying.
They were categorised as either:
* having had experience of bullying, or
* having had no experience of bullying.
Which statistical test would be most suitable to analyse the data in this investigation?
With reference to this investigation, explain three reasons for your choice of test.
7

Answer 13

1 mark for Chi-Squared test.
PLUS

Possible content:
- Test of difference/association Analysing the difference in experience of bullying between teenagers who had a secure or insecure attachment/the association between attachment type and experience of bullying. Test of correlation would not be creditworthy
- Independent/unrelated design – each teenager cannot appear in more than one category ie. secure/insecure; experience of bullying/no experience of bullying
- Nominal/categorical – the data refers to the number of teenagers in each of the four categories.

Question 14

Discuss the influence of early attachment on childhood relationships. Refer to the likely
results of the study in Question 13 in your answer. 8

Answer 14

Possible content:
- Bowlby’s internal working model (IWM) – early attachment provides blueprint/prototype for later attachment; formation of mental representation/schema of first attachment relationship; affects later relationships during childhood
- Attachment type associated with quality of peer relationships in childhood – studies of friendship patterns, bullying, etc
- Knowledge of relevant studies, eg Myron-Wilson and Smith
- Material on maternal deprivation is creditworthy if made relevant to the question.

Possible application:
- Securely attached children are less likely to be involved in bullying than insecurely attached children or vice versa
- Evidence, eg Myron-Wilson and Smith suggests that avoidant children are more likely to be victims of bullying, resistant children are more likely to be bullies themselves
- Children who were securely attached have developed a positive template (IWM) for future and so are less likely to be involved in bullying
- Children who formed an insecure attachment in childhood are more likely to have difficulty fitting in with peers and so may be more inclined to have experienced bullying.
- Possible discussion:
- Use of evidence in discussion. Research on adult relationships (e.g. Hazan & Shaver) is not creditworthy unless explicitly linked to childhood relationships
- Discussion of theory, eg Bowlby’s IWM and issue of determinism; negative implications of assumption that the relationship is cause and effect
- Discussion of use of self-report techniques to assess quality of childhood/adult relationships – subjectivity, social desirability, etc – as well as retrospect

Question 15

Identify two behavioural characteristics of depression. 2

Answer 15

• Changes in sleep patterns: sleeping less (insomnia)/sleeping more (hypersomnia)
• Changes in eating patterns: eating more/eating less
• Social withdrawal
• Reduced movement
• Reduced speech.

Question 16

Briefly outline one way that a cognitive psychologist might treat depression by challenging
irrational thoughts. 2

Answer 16

• Rational confrontation; ABCDE model – D for dispute, E for effect (reduction of irrational thoughts); shame attacking exercises; empirical and logical argument (Ellis)
• Patient as scientist; data gathering to test validity of irrational thoughts; reinforcement of positive beliefs (Beck).

Question 17

Describe the biological approach to treating obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) 4

Answer 17

• Use of drug therapy to ‘correct’ imbalance of neurochemicals, eg serotonin, to reduce symptoms associated with OCD
• SSRIs – prevent the reabsorption and breakdown of serotonin in the brain, continue to stimulate the postsynaptic neuron
• Timescale – 3–4 months of daily use for SSRIs to impact upon symptoms
• Alternatives to SSRIs – tricyclics, SNRIs
• Other drugs – benzodiazepines for general relaxation and reduction of anxiety

Question 18

Discuss statistical infrequency and deviation from social norms as definitions of abnormality. 16

Answer 18

Statistical infrequency:
- Abnormality is defined as behaviour or characteristics that are rare/uncommon/unusual
- Occupies the extreme ends of a normal distribution curve, eg low IQ defined as intellectual disability disorder
- Relies on the use of up-to-date statistics.
- Deviation from social norms:
- All societies make collective judgments about what counts as ‘normal’/usual/typical behaviour
- Any behaviour that does not conform to accepted/expected standards is abnormal
- Norms vary from culture to culture.
Accept other valid points.

Possible discussion:
- Many diagnoses of illness involve some reference to statistics
- Difficult to know where the line is between statistically normal and abnormal/subjective interpretation
- Some statistically infrequent behaviour is desirable/highly regarded, eg high IQ
- Not all behaviour that deviates from social norms is a sign of illness, eg speeding
- Norms are culturally relative so difficult to determine universal signs of illness
- Social norms definition could be used/abused as an instrument of social control
- Social norms change over time (lack of temporal validity)
- Neither definition is satisfactory on its own – comparison with alternatives, eg failure to function, deviation from ideal mental health.

Question 19

Which one of the following is most associated with informational social influence?
Shade one box only.

A It is an emotional, rather than cognitive, process.
B It is based on a desire to be liked, rather than a desire to be right.
C It is more likely to lead to a permanent, rather than temporary,
change in attitude.
D It occurs in unambiguous situations, rather than those where there is no obvious answer.
1

Answer 19

C

Question 20

In a sixth form debating society, Samina is the only student in a group of six who does not
believe that drugs should be legalised.
Using your knowledge of minority influence processes, explain two ways in which Samina
could convince the other students in the debating society to agree with her. 4

Answer 20

• Samina could demonstrate consistency by not deviating from her view that drugs should not be legalised – she could point out that this is a view she has held for many years
• Samina could demonstrate commitment by defending her view that drugs should not be legalised through some personal investment – for instance, offering to speak in assembly about the dangers of drugs. This will draw more attention to her case (augmentation principle)
• Samina should demonstrate flexibility by adapting her view/accepting other valid counterarguments.
• Perhaps some ‘softer’ drugs could be decriminalised, rather than legalised
• Over time, the rest of the debating society may become ‘converted’ (snowball effect) – for example, if
• Samina makes her case particularly well
• Credit other valid points, eg persistence, confidence.

Question 21

Researchers have identified different features of science, including:
* replicability
* theory construction
* hypothesis testing.
Explain how Asch’s conformity research illustrates one of these features of science. 3

Answer 21

• Replicability – Asch’s studies had standardised procedures (eg the number of confederates; length of lines etc) which meant that they could be repeated/replicated to assess consistency/reliability of the findings; this increased the validity of the conclusions drawn
• Theory construction – Asch’s findings led to the development of explanations/theories of conformity, eg that people will conform to group pressure to avoid ridicule (normative social influence)
• Hypothesis testing – Asch’s research tested the assumption that naive participants would conform to an obviously wrong answer when placed under group pressure; this was achieved by manipulating an IV (fake/genuine answer) to measure the effect on the DV and keeping other (possible confounding) variables constant.

Question 22

It is the end of the school day and Freddie is pushing other students in the bus queue.
“Stop it, will you?” protests one of Freddie’s classmates.
“You can’t tell me what to do!” laughs Freddie.
At that moment, Freddie turns to see the deputy head, wearing a high-visibility jacket,
staring angrily at him. Without thinking, Freddie stops pushing the other boys and waits
quietly in line.
Discuss the legitimacy of authority and agentic state explanations of obedience.
Refer to Freddie’s behaviour in your answer. 16

Answer 22

Legitimacy of authority:
- When a person recognises their own and other’s position in a social hierarchy
- Legitimacy is increased by visible symbols of authority, eg uniform
- Legitimacy of setting, order, system.
Agentic state:
- When a person acts on behalf of an authority figure/person of higher status
- The actor feels no personal responsibility/does not feel guilty for their actions
- The opposite of an autonomous state in which people act according to their own principles
- Reference to binding factors.

Possible application:
Legitimacy of authority:
- Freddie pays no attention to his friend as they have equal status in the social hierarchy
- The deputy head is a legitimate authority within the social system (school)
- The deputy head is a visible symbol of authority (high-vis jacket).
Agentic state:
- When making fun of his friend’s request, Freddie is in an autonomous state
- When he sees the deputy head, Freddie enters the agentic state ‘without thinking’ and observes school rules (queuing in line).

Possible discussion:
- Use of evidence to support/contradict the explanations, eg Milgram variations, Bickman, Hofling
- Use of real-life examples to illustrate explanations, eg My Lai massacre
- Neither explanation can account for rates of disobedience in studies
- Obedience may be dispositional, not situational, eg authoritarian personality
- Discussion of difficulty measuring and/or distinguishing between reasons why obedience occurs.

Question 23

Which type of long-term memory would be most associated with the following?
Write the correct type of long-term memory in the spaces provided.
Stored with reference to contextual information, eg time and place.1

Answer 23

Episodic

Question 24

Which type of long-term memory would be most associated with the following?
Write the correct type of long-term memory in the spaces provided.
Difficult to describe in words. 1

Answer 24

Procedural

Question 25

Which type of long-term memory would be most associated with the following? Write the correct type of long-term memory in the spaces provided. Knowing the meaning of a word 1

Answer 25

Semantic

Question 26

State one advantage of an independent groups design.1

Answer 26

- Removes order effects/effects of practise/fatigue etc - Participants are less likely to work out the aim and change their behaviour/less influenced by demand characteristics.

Question 27

In Condition A, 10 participants learnt 30 words and recalled them in the same room. In Condition B, another 10 participants learnt the same 30 words in one room and recalled them in a different room. The results for Condition B are shown below. The researcher decided to use the mean to analyse the results Suggest a more appropriate measure of central tendency for this data set and explain why it would be more appropriate. 3

Answer 27

- The median would be better as there is a large anomalous result in the data set (p4 has scored 28). - This would distort the mean value making it unrepresentative of the data set as a whole OR - Recall of words cannot be classed as interval data as not all words are equally difficult/easy to recall. - As the data is ordinal, the median should be used rather than the mean

Question 28

Another explanation for forgetting is interference. Using an example, explain what is meant by retroactive interference 3

Answer 28

- When new/recently stored information disrupts/affects the recall of old/previously stored information - More likely if competing information is similar.

Question 29

Danielle was walking down the high street when she witnessed a crime. A young man attacked an elderly woman. After a struggle, the man ran away with the woman’s handbag. Danielle and another couple of witnesses stayed with the woman until the police arrived. Explain how the police could use the cognitive interview to help Danielle’s recall of the event 6

Answer 29

- Danielle is encouraged to mentally reinstate the context, reminded of, eg why she was walking down the high street, the weather etc as this may trigger further information (reinstate the context) - Danielle should be asked to report every detail even if it seems irrelevant, eg what the attacker was wearing, the style of the handbag etc (report everything) - Danielle should be asked to recall the event in a different order, eg beginning from when she comforted the elderly woman and working backwards (changing order) - Danielle should recall the event from the perspective of others, eg the couple of other witnesses who were present at the time (changing perspective) - Credit features of enhanced cognitive interview to facilitate recall if applied to Danielle’s experience.

Question 30

Outline and evaluate research into duration in memory. 8

Answer 30

Knowledge of procedures and/or findings/conclusions of studies which investigate duration of sensory memory, STM or LTM, eg Peterson and Peterson - Trigrams study (1959), Bahrick - Yearbook study (1974). - Use of artificial material, eg recall of trigrams, lists of unconnected words etc - Use of artificial laboratory setting - Discussion of issues of validity (higher in Bahrick study), reliability - Alternative explanations – Peterson and Peterson’s findings may be more to do with interference than duration.

Question 31

Nine-year-old Annie asks her mother, “What was I like as a toddler?” “Oh, you could be a bit difficult,” Annie’s mother replies. “You used to scream when I left you at nursery. When I returned to pick you up, you would run towards me and then push me away.” Identify the attachment type that Annie’s mother is describing.1

Answer 31

Insecure-resistant

Question 32

Nine-year-old Annie asks her mother, “What was I like as a toddler?” “Oh, you could be a bit difficult,” Annie’s mother replies. “You used to scream when I left you at nursery. When I returned to pick you up, you would run towards me and then push me away.” Distinguish between two other types of attachment 4

Answer 32

- Secure attachment/Type B shows moderate levels of stranger anxiety whereas insecure-avoidant/Type A shows low levels - Type B shows moderate levels of separation anxiety whereas Type A shows low levels - Type B shows joy on reunion whereas Type A shows little response - Type B shows use of attachment figure as a safe base whereas Type A shows high levels of independent behaviour - Credit distinctions based on other types of attachment, eg disorganised; disinhibited.

Question 33

Studies of attachment often involve naturalistic observations. Suggest one way in which studies of attachment could be improved by using controlled observations. 3

Answer 33

- Controlled observations can minimise extraneous variables - Controlled observations are likely to have standardised procedures, so reliability/replication is more of a possibility than in naturalistic observations - Cause and effect relationships are easier to establish than in a naturalistic observation.

Question 34

Discuss research into caregiver-infant interactions in humans. 16

Answer 34

Possible content: - Description of features of caregiver-infant interaction in humans: reciprocity – two-way interaction between caregiver and child/turn-taking/mirroring; interactional synchrony – simultaneous co-ordinated sequence of movements, communication, emotions - Accept other relevant features, eg imitation; baby talk register/‘motherese’ - Examples of features - Description of evidence of features, eg Isabella et al; Murray and Trevarthan; Condon and Sander; Meltzoff and Moore. Possible discussion: - Use of evidence to support or contradict features - Use of controlled observations to capture micro-sequences - Infant’s intention is difficult to determine - The purpose of synchrony and reciprocity in attachment is difficult to discern - Research is socially sensitive – impact on working mothers.

Question 35

Briefly evaluate the deviation from ideal mental health definition of abnormality. 4

Answer 35

- Comprehensive criteria for mental health - Based on similar models of physical health – but mental health may not be the same - Criteria are too demanding – most of us would be defined as unhealthy - Western individualist bias.

Question 36

Outline two cognitive characteristics of obsessive-compulsive disorder.4

Answer 36

- Obsessive thoughts – persistent and intrusive thoughts of, eg germs - Hypervigilance/selective attention – increased awareness of source of obsession in new situations - Insight into irrationality of thoughts/behaviour - Cognitive strategies to deal with obsessions.

Question 37

Max has a phobia of box the sea. On a family holiday as a child, he was carried away by the tide and had to be rescued by a lifeguard. Now he has a family of his own, Max refuses to go on beach holidays. Discuss the two-process model of phobias. Refer to Max’s phobia of the sea in your answer. 16

Answer 37

Possible content: - Development of phobia through classical conditioning – association of fear/anxiety with neutral stimulus to produce conditioned response; assumes experience of traumatic event; generalisation of fear to other similar objects; one trial learning - Maintenance of fear through operant conditioning – avoidance of phobic object/situation is negatively reinforcing; relief as reward/primary reinforcer. Possible application: - Max’s phobia has developed through classical conditioning – association formed between the neutral stimulus (sea) and the fearful event (being carried away by the tide) - The conditioned response is triggered every time Max is near the sea - Phobia has generalised to all ‘beach holidays’ - Phobia is maintained through operant conditioning – avoidance of fear is reinforcing, so Max avoids the beach. Possible discussion: - Use of evidence to support/contradict the two-process model, eg Watson and Rayner, DiNardo et al - Not all phobias are the result of trauma - Alternative evolutionary explanations for more common phobias, eg preparedness - Behavioural approach ignores cognitive aspects of phobias - Alternative explanations for avoidance, eg safety - Behavioural principles underpin therapies based on counterconditioning, eg systematic desensitisation.

Question 38

Outline two explanations of resistance to social influence. 4

Answer 38

- locus of control – people with an internal locus of control are more likely to resist pressure to conform/less likely to obey/more resistant to social influence than those with an external locus of control; people with an internal locus of control believe they control own circumstances - social support – defiance/non-conformity more likely if others are seen to resist influence; seeing others disobey/not conform gives observer confidence to do so.

Question 39

In 1987, a survey of 1000 young people found that 540 said they smoked cigarettes, whilst 460 said they did not. In 2017, a similar survey of another 1000 young people found that 125 said they smoked cigarettes, whilst 875 said they did not. Calculate the ratio of smokers to non-smokers in 2017. Give your answer in simplest form. 2

Answer 39

2017 = 1:7

Question 40

In 1987, a survey of 1000 young people found that 540 said they smoked cigarettes, whilst 460 said they did not. In 2017, a similar survey of another 1000 young people found that 125 said they smoked cigarettes, whilst 875 said they did not. 0 2 Which statistical test should be used to calculate whether there is a significant difference in reported smoking behaviour between the two surveys? Give three reasons for your answer. 4

Answer 40

1 mark for chi-squared test. - 1 mark for each of the following: the researchers are investigating a difference between the number of smokers and non-smokers in the two surveys (or an association between date and number of young people smoking/not smoking) - the data is in the form of categories of smoker/non-smoker, ie nominal/categorical/non-parametric - the young people sampled in 1987 and 2017 are different people/unrelated/independent groups so the data are unrelated.

Question 41

The survey shows that fewer young people are smoking today than in 1987. Using your knowledge of social influence processes in social change, explain possible reasons for this change in behaviour. 6

Answer 41

Minority influence processes: - examples of the influence of pressure groups/anti-smoking lobbies and how they may convince the majority through consistency, commitment (augmentation principle), flexibility - the snowball effect – how smoking behaviour/views on smoking change gradually over time. Conformity processes: - normative social influence/compliance – the group norm among young people is to maintain health and fitness; people who go against this norm (by smoking) risk rejection from the group; smoking is anti-social, violates social norms, so young people who smoke are less likely to fit in - informational social influence/internalisation – more is known now about the harmful effects of smoking, young people may have become convinced by such evidence. Obedience processes: - laws on smoking have changed, e.g. banned in public places, which may have influenced young people’s behaviour.

Question 42

Discuss ethical issues in social influence research. 8

Answer 42

Possible content: - knowledge of ethical issues in social influence research and/or specific examples of where they occur in studies - deception/lack of informed consent – when participants are misled or information is withheld, e.g. Asch’s participants were told the study was investigating visual perception and knew nothing of the confederates; Milgram’s participants were unaware the shocks were not real - protection from harm/psychological distress – participants should not be placed ‘at risk’; gain new negative knowledge of themselves, e.g. prisoners in the Stanford prison experiment (SPE) were humiliated, showed signs of severe distress; some guards felt pressured to follow the more dominant guards - right to withdraw – participants should be free to leave when they choose to, e.g. Milgram’s participants were given ‘verbal prods’ to encourage them to remain within the experiment; prisoners in SPE pressurised to stay. Possible discussion points: - cost-benefit analysis – studies may be justified on the grounds of what we learn, e.g. Milgram – the dangers of ‘blind obedience’ - validity – deception/lack of informed consent justified as demand characteristics are reduced, e.g. in Asch; would be difficult to investigate processes such as obedience without deception - use of debriefing in studies – retrospective consent, psychiatric follow-up assessments, etc.; participants confirmed they were happy to have taken part, etc. - counterarguments/discussion points related to specific studies, e.g. Zimbardo’s study led to reform of real prisons; Milgram awarded prize by APA - research was conducted at a time when ethical guidelines had not been established; could be argued that studies led to introduction of guidelines which protected future participants.

Question 43

Which two of A, B, C, D and E are associated with the cognitive interview technique? A Alter the perspective B Change the speaker C Match the direction D Remove the context E Reverse the order 2

Answer 43

A and E

Question 44

Evaluate the cognitive interview as a way of improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. 6

Answer 44

Possible evaluation points: - use of evidence to support/challenge the effectiveness of cognitive interview (CI), e.g. Kohnken et al (1999) - although CI leads to more correct information, incorrect information also increases (although some studies, e.g. Geiselman dispute this) - some elements of CI may be more successful than others – Milne and Bull (2002) - the success of CI may be related to the age of witness - CI requires training and investment so it may not always be available because of limited resources - credit evaluation of enhanced cognitive interview - credit comparison with standard interview and enhanced CI.

Question 45

Most PIN code box s are 4 digits long and are easy to remember. In contrast, mobile phone numbers are 11 digits long. Most people would not be able to remember a friend’s new mobile phone number unless they were able to say it to themselves several times without interruption. Discuss the multi-store model of memory. Refer to the information above in your answer. 16

Answer 45

- capacity, duration and coding of the separate stores – sensory register, short-term memory (STM), long-term memory (LTM) - transfer processes between stores – attention and rehearsal - rehearsal loop – maintenance in STM - how information is lost from each store, e.g. decay/displacement - information processing model – linear made up of unitary stores. Possible application: - four-digit numbers are easy to remember as 7(+/–2) items is the average capacity of STM - eleven-digit mobile numbers would exceed this limited capacity - these longer mobile numbers can be recalled if people ‘say it to themselves several times’ which implies maintenance in STM/transfer to LTM - interruption disrupts recall because it causes displacement from STM - credit reference to ‘chunking’ and/or primacy-recency effect in this context. Possible discussion points: - useful starting point for memory research, first model to incorporate three different stores - evidence that supports the coding, capacity, duration of the three stores, e.g. Baddeley, Jacobs, Sperling, Bahrick et al - evidence that supports the functional separation of the stores, e.g. Glanzer and Cunitz - evidence that challenges the unitary nature of STM and LTM, e.g. Shallice and Warrington - evidence which suggests that rehearsal is not the only method of transfer from STM to LTM/ distinction between maintenance and elaborative rehearsal - critical comparisons with alternative models, e.g. working memory.

Question 46

Outline findings from research into the role of the father in attachment. 4

Answer 46

Possible content: - Schaffer and Emerson (1964) – 75% of infants studied had formed an attachment with the father at 18 months - research shows that the father may fulfil a qualitatively different role from that of the mother – play vs emotional support – but this is just as crucial to the child’s wellbeing - research shows that the father in a single parent family is more likely to adopt the traditional maternal role - quality of attachment with the father may be less influential in adolescence – Grossman (2002) - research shows that the role of the father may differ depending on the gender of the child

Question 47

Explain the economic implications of research into the role of the father in attachment 10

Answer 47

- increasingly fathers remain at home and therefore contribute less to the economy consequently more mothers may return to work and contribute to the economy - changing laws on paternity leave – government-funded so affects the economy; impact upon employers - gender pay gap may be reduced if parental roles are regarded as more equal - early attachment research, e.g. Bowlby suggests fathers should provide an economic rather than an emotional function.

Question 48

Discuss research into the influence of early attachment on childhood and/or adult relationships. 16

Answer 48

- Bowlby’s internal working model (IWM) – early attachment provides blueprint/prototype for later attachment; formation of mental representation/schema of first attachment relationship; affects later relationships during childhood and adulthood - Material on maternal deprivation is creditworthy if made relevant to the question - attachment type associated with quality of peer relationships in childhood – studies of friendship patterns, bullying, etc. - relationship between early attachment type and later romantic relationships – the ‘love quiz’ (Hazan and Shaver) - relationship between early attachment type and parenting style - adult attachment interview (Main et al) continuity between early attachment type and adult classification/behaviours – credit knowledge of procedure and coding system (insecure-dismissing, autonomous-secure, insecure-preoccupied, unresolved) - knowledge of relevant studies, e.g. Kerns; Myron-Wilson and Smith; Zimmerman; Hazan and Shaver; Quinton; Harlow; Freud and Dann; Koluchova; Clarke and Clarke Possible discussion points: - use of evidence in discussion - discussion of theory, e.g. Bowlby’s IWM and issue of determinism; negative implications of assumption that the relationship is cause and effect - discussion of underpinning evidence regarding measuring adult attachment type, e.g. difficulty of establishing cause and effect between early attachment history and later relationships - discussion of use of self-report techniques to assess quality of childhood/adult relationships – subjectivity, social desirability, etc. – as well as retrospective assessment of early attachment patterns - difficulty of measuring the IWM – hypothetical concept - counter-evidence, e.g. to suggest that children can recover from deprivation/privation and form effective adult relationships - ethical issues, e.g. anxiety associated with use of adult attachment interview - discussion of use of findings from animal studies in this area, e.g. Harlow and difficulty of generalising across species.

Question 49

Outline two behavioural characteristics of depression. 4

Answer 49

- change in activity levels - increased lethargy (lack of energy)/ withdrawal from activities that were once enjoyed (anhedonia); neglecting personal hygiene; increased activity levels/agitation - disruption to sleep – sleep may reduce (insomnia) or increase (hypersomnia) - disruption to eating behaviour – increased or decreased eating/weight gain or loss - aggressive acts – towards others or oneself, e.g. self-harm.

Question 50

Agoraphobia is an extreme fear of open or public spaces. It affects box less than 1% of adults in the UK. In many cases, people with agoraphobia are unable to leave their homes and may not even be able to look outside, perceiving threats everywhere. The condition is very stressful for the individual, and for their family, and may prevent sufferers from living a normal life and achieving their potential. Referring to the description above, outline three definitions of abnormality 6

Answer 50

- statistical infrequency/deviation from statistical norms is abnormal behaviour is that which is rare/uncommon/anomalous – ‘affects less than 1% adults…’ - deviation from social norms is behaviour which goes against/contravenes unwritten rules/expectations (in a given society/culture) – ‘unable to leave their home..’ ‘may prevent sufferers from living a normal life…’ - failure to function adequately is behaviour which causes personal distress/anguish OR inability to cope with everyday life/maladaptiveness – ‘very stressful for the individual and for their family..’ - deviation from ideal mental health is behaviour which fails to meet particular criteria for psychological wellbeing – ‘cannot achieve potential’ (self-actualisation); ‘perceiving threats everywhere’ (inaccurate perception of reality); lack of resistance to stress.

Question 51

One explanation for phobias, including agoraphobia, is the two box -process model. Outline one limitation of the two-process model. 2

Answer 51

- Evidence suggests that not all people with a phobia can recall a traumatic experience, e.g. Di Nardo (1990) - Not all individuals who experience a stressful event go on to develop a phobia - Behavioural explanations, like the two-process model, do not adequately account for the cognitive characteristics of phobias - Learning theories of phobias cannot explain why we seem to be pre-prepared to fear certain stimuli (biological preparedness) - Issues of reductionism; determinism, etc.

Question 52

A researcher wanted to investigate agoraphobia by studying Patient X. The researcher designed a questionnaire to find out about Patient X’s experiences. However, a colleague suggested that the researcher might do better to conduct a case study. Explain one or more reasons why it might be better to conduct a case study than a questionnaire. 4

Answer 52

- Case studies can be longitudinal and so changes (in Patient X’s experience) can be observed over time whereas questionnaires tend to provide just a ‘snapshot’ of experience - Case studies usually involve several methods (observation, interviews, etc.), enabling checks for consistency/reliability/validity whereas a questionnaire is a single method of data collection - Case studies produce rich, detailed qualitative data, whereas questionnaires tend to produce less detailed information.

Question 53

Outline and evaluate one or more neural explanations of obsessive-compulsive disorder. 8

Answer 53

Possible content: - The role of neurochemicals such as serotonin and dopamine - Levels associated with abnormal transmission of mood-related information/obsessive thoughts - Structural deficits – abnormal functioning in the parahippocampal gyrus which processes unpleasant emotions; hyperactivity in the basal ganglia linked to repetitive actions (compulsions); the orbito-frontal cortex ‘the worry circuit’ - The caudate nucleus-thalamus loop, inability to filter small worries in OCD so worry circuit is overactive - damage to neural mechanisms due to breakdown of immune functioning, e.g. via Lyme’s disease. Note: that genetic explanations alone should not be credited unless there is an explicit link made between genes and levels of neurotransmitter/structural deficits. Possible evaluation points: - Evidence to support/contradict the effects of neural mechanisms in OCD - Success of drug treatments, e.g. SSRIs, suggests that low serotonin is a causal factor - Not all patients respond to drug treatment which casts doubt on the explanation’s validity - Issue of causation – neurochemical imbalances/structural abnormalities in the brain may be a symptom rather than the cause of the illness - Many neural mechanisms have been identified but these are not always present in all cases - Some studies of abnormal brain functioning, e.g. Aylward, have not been replicated - Comparison with other explanations.