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Quiz 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

When does diffusion occur faster?

A

When the concentration gradient is greater, the distance is shorter, temperature is higher, molecules are smaller

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2
Q

What is Ficks Law of Diffusion

A

rate of diffusion=
(surface area)(concentration gradient)(membrane permeability)/ membrane thickness
also: J=PA(Co-Ci)

An increase in membrane thickness will result in a decrease in rate of diffusion.

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3
Q

Define Ligand

A

Binds to Receptor (estrogen is the ligand for the estrogen receptor)

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4
Q

What is allosteric inhibition/ modulation?

A

some proteins have alternative sites for regulatory ligands. These sites will either activate or inhibit the protein.

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5
Q

Modulation by phosphorylation

A

many proteins are activated/ inactivated by the covalent addition of phosphate group. The negative charge from PO42- will pull positive ligands to bind.

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6
Q

How much ATP is used per day in a human

A

44 lbs

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7
Q

Define -crine, cytokine, hormone, synapse and systemic

A

-crine: to secrete
Cytokine: chemical used for communication between cells (locally)
Hormone: a chemical secreted into the blood stream to accomplish communication over long distances
Synapse: physical junction between 2 cells
Systemic: all over the body

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8
Q

Define Endo-, Exo-, Endogenous/Exogenous

A

Endo- within
Exo- without
Endogenous: coming from within (made within your body)
Exogenous: coming from outside (supplements)

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9
Q

What is a Gap Junction?

A

Space between two neighboring cells that allow for communication/diffusion

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10
Q

What are contact dependent signals?

A

molecules on the surface of 1 cell interact with molecules on the surface of another

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11
Q

What is local communication in cell-to-cell communication?

A

One cell secretes a chemical into the extracellular fluid, it is detected by a neighboring cell

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12
Q

What is long distance communication in cell-to-cell

A

a combination of electrical and chemical signals that travel along nerve axons.

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13
Q

What are Endocrine Cells

A

They secrete chemical messengers into blood stream, have effects all over the body, used for long-distance communication

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14
Q

Endocrine with Breast Tissue and Estrogen/Progesterone

A

1) breast tissue has receptors for estrogen and progresterone
2) estrogen released into blood, accesses all cells of the body
3) estrogen triggers breast cell reproduction, tissue growth and prep for lactation
4) if patients are given estrogen after menopause, it triggers these responses by breast tissue-can lead to breast cancre

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15
Q

What are the differences between cytokines and hormones?

A

cytokines usually work in short distances
cytokines work on many cell types and are made on demand (never stored)
Cytokines often work locally, hormones always systemically

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16
Q

Define Plasma membrane receptors

A

transmembrane proteins that bind a lipophobic ligand on the outside and transmit the signal intracellularly

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17
Q

Define Intracellular receptors:

A

reside in the cytosol or nucleus. Bind Lipophilic Ligands like Steroids. Bind ligand, regulatory elements and DNA

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18
Q

What are up and down regulation?

A

up-regulation- increase # of receptors for ligands
Down-regulation- decrease # of receptors by pulling them in

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19
Q

Is Cocaine abuse an example of up or down regulation for dopamine receptor expression? Explain

A

Down Regulation. Results in dependency as your body cannot mimic the amount of dopamine that the cocaine brought in.

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20
Q

Is Oxytocin receptor expression during pregnancy an example of up or down regulation?

A

Up Regulation: Allows the uterus to become more sensitive to a hormone that is used for other purposes between pregnancies.

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21
Q

Define Agonists and Antagonists

A

Agonist: exciters, mimic signal molecules and cause action
Antagonist: inhibitors, block receptor and signal pathway

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22
Q

What are tropic hormones?

A

stimulate other glands to make and release hormones, usually also triggers growth of target gland

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23
Q

Define Primary and Secondary hyposecretion

A

Primary-
damage to the gland= less hormone produced; enzyme deficiency= less hormone produced; dietary deficiency of iodine=less thyroid hormone produced

Secondary- too little tropic hormone produced/released

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24
Q

Define Primary and Secondary hypersecretion

A

Primary- endocrine cell tumor=produces hormone out-of-control

Secondary- excessive stimulation by tropic hormones

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25
What are the 3 structural forms of hormones?
Amine, Peptide/protein, and Steroid
26
Define Amine, Peptides, and Steroid
Amine: small hormones, derivatives of single amino acid Peptide: somewhat larger (many amino acids) usually produced in an inactive form and activated upon need Steroid: derived from cholesterol, lipid based. Made in only a few glands in the body. Sex hormones. Can pass through bilayer.
27
How/where are steroid hormones made and transported?
Steroid hormones are lipophilic meaning they cannot be stored, they must be made on demand; resulting in a slower response time. They are transported in the blood on albumin or other protein transporters Made in Adrenal cortex and gonads
28
What is released from the adrenal cortex and medulla?
Cortex: mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, androgens Medulla: epi and norepi
29
What is aldosterone?
Major mineralocorticoid, regulates salt reabsorption during urine formation, impacts potassium secretion, therefore central regulator of blood pressure
30
What is cortisol?
Main glucocorticoid Regulates sugar use and storage during stress responses Causes systemic vasoconstriction and therefore high BP Potent effects on the immune system, anti-inflammatory Almost every cell type in the body expresses glucocorticoid receptors.
31
What are Androgens?
DHEA and Androstenedione- precursors to testosterone and estrogen Functions in sex drive, development of fetus, and puberty
32
How are hormones broken down and excreted?
Largely by the liver and kidneys (hours to days) Sometimes metabolized by target cell Some hormones are broken down by enzymes in tissues and blood (minutes to hours)
33
Mechanism of Hormone Action
-Reach all cells but only cells with receptors will respond (target cells) -Receptors are on the surface for water-soluble hormones, intracellular for lipid soluble -Intracellular receptors are generally transcription factors, so these hormones usually enact changes on gene expression -Surface receptors often are connected via signaling pathways and may have a variety of effects on the cell.
34
What controls hormone secretion (3 ways) ?
1) they monitor the blood and release the hormone in response to change in plasma concentration of some substance 2) a neuron stimulates them to release hormone 3) they are controlled by a tropic hormone(hypothalamus and pituitary)
35
How does the hypothalamus oversee the endocrine system?
1) influences hormone secretion activity of anterior pituitary via tropic hormones 2) produces hormones itself, released from the posterior pituitary 3) oversees hormone secretion by the adrenal gland (medulla)
36
What functions do the frontal lobe and limbic system serve?
Frontal lobe: decision making and cognitive function Limbic system: the part of the brain involved in our behavioral and emotional responses
37
How is the hypothalamus connected to the anterior pituitary ? How does the hypothalamus trigger the anterior pituitary?
Via a portal capillary system. Hypothalamus secretes tropic hormones which trigger endocrine responses in the anterior pituitary.
38
What is a portal venous system?
this occurs when a capillary bed pools into another capillary bed through veins without firs going through the heart.
39
How is the hypothalamus connected to the posterior pituitary?
the posterior pituitary is an extension of the hypothalamus. Neurons originating in the hypothalamus extend into the posterior pituitary where they release hormones into the blood.
40
What does dopamine inhibit?
inhibits the release of prolactin( hormone for breast milk and controlled by anterior pituitary)
41
What is Prolactin (PRL)
regulated breast milk production (also, anti-libido released during stress)
42
What are FSH and LH?
Follicle-stimulating hormones and luteinizing hormone. Influence gametogenesis and secondary characteristics by regulating hormone synthesis by the gonads.
43
What does Oxytocin do?
Positive feedback loop, allows for cervical opening in labor and breast milk let down in lactation, roles in bonding and stress The hormone behind doing things out of love/ caring for offspring -from posterior pituitary
44
What does vasopressin do ?
constricts smooth muscles around blood vessel which increases blood pressure and decreasing urine output (also known as ADH- antidiuretic hormone) from posterior pituitary
45
What are estrogen, testosterone, and progesterone?
steroid hormones derived from cholesterol
46
What will 17-b hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase make Androstenedione into?
Testosterone sine 17-b is in the testes. This testosterone can still be converted into estrogen
47
What will aromatase allow androstenedione to become?
Estrogen (4 types)
48
Where is aromatase located?
granulosa cells (ovary), fat, liver and breast cells
49
How is estrogen production iterative?
estrogen leads to more fat/adipose cells, these cells contain aromatase, this aromatase is used to create more estrogen
50
What does FSH and LH do in development and how is their negative feedback structured?
FSH drives development of structure involved in spermatogenesis. FSH creates Inhibin which shuts off FSH production LH drives testosterone production. Testosterone stops LH and FSH.
51
What is unique about Testosterone and DHT?
- testosterone is converted to DHT by 5- alpha-reductase - both testosterone and DHT bind to the androgen receptor, but DHT has a much higher affinity -continues to act on the prostate throughout the lifespan, linked to prostate enlargement and balding
52
Where is progesterone made and what are its main effects?
Made/released from ovarian follicles and ovulated oocytes Main effects: prevents shedding of the uterine lining (menstruation), inhibits smooth muscle contraction
53
What are the secondary effects of progesterone?
-binds to mineralocorticoid receptors, modulates blood pressure -acts as a GABA receptor agonist; helps to quiet neuronal activity, destress - enhances the effect of serotonin receptors - progesterone is at its lowest right before menstruation (increase in smooth muscle contraction=abdominal cramps, decrease serotonin=feeling of depression
54
What is the main route of metabolism for sex hormones?
The liver! Meaning, that if there are liver issues in a patient, they will most likely experience effects of hormones for a longer time.
55
What were the results of global Androgen receptor knockout in Males ?
Brain: absence of male sexual and aggressive behaviors Cardiovascular system: reduced heart size Muscle: decreased skeletal muscle Prostate: no prostate development
56
Where are androgen receptors in the testes and ovaries?
testes: expressed on tissue cells but not sperm or their stem cells. ARs play a role in sperm development Ovaries: expressed on follicles, plays a role follicular, plays a role in egg development
57
Estrogen is pro-mitotic in breasts and endometrium meaning...
breast size increases during pregnancy in preparation for lactation. endometrial (lining of the uterus) proliferation during the menstrual cycle
58
What does estrogen promote in the testes?
Sperm Maturation
59
What are the four estrogens and when are they most prominent.
Estrone(E1): prominent after menopause Estradiol (E2): prominent in non-pregnant women Estriol(E3): prominent in pregnancy Estetrol (E4): Produced ONLY during pregnancy All are produced from androstenedione or testosterone by aromatase.
60
Where is the Estrogen Receptor and what are the two forms?
ER resides in the nucleus primarily and some can be found in the cytoplasm. Forms: ER alpha and ER beta
61
What is the affinity of ER alpha and beta for all forms of estrogen?
Estradiol: High alpha and beta Estrone: Medium alpha and low beta Estriol: medium alpha and medium/high beta Estetrol: low alpha and low beta
62
Examples of ER alpha expression
endometrium, breast cancer cells, ovarian cells, hypothalamus and testes
63
Examples of ER beta expression
ovarian follicle cells, kidney, brain, bone, heart, intestines, prostate, endothelium
64
On average, men have ____ times the testosterone level of age match women. Women have __ times the estrogen level of men.
Men have 2-25x the testosterone. Women have 4x the estrogen level
65
How does Androgen Receptors function with the Immune system?
-AR activation drives neutrophil proliferation (important for bacterial infection/overall defense) - AR activation suppresses T and B cell function (B cells make antibodies/ specific to each pathogen)
66
What do tendons and ligaments do?
tendons anchor muscles to bones ligaments attach bones to bones at joints
67
How does estrogen affect collagen and skeletal function?
Estrogen increases collagen content resulting in decreases stiffness. Creates a looser joint that are more prone to injury
68
Androgens ___ protein building and ___ protein breakdown in muscle cells
increase protein building and inhibit protein breakdown
69
When do Androgens circulate higher?
30-60 minutes after exercise
70
How do androgens increase in athletes?
AR expression increases in strength-trained muscles (expression increases in leg muscles in runners but not their arms)
71
Estrogen ___ muscle protein building and ___ breakdown
promotes muscle protein and inhibits breakdown
72
In postmenopausal bio women, muscle mass is ____ rapidly and ____ respond well to exercise.
muscle mass is lost rapidly and does not respond as well to exercise
73
Why will Post menopausal women hold glucose in their bloodstream longer?
They do not have sufficient estrogen to help regulate mitochondrial function in skeletal muscle. In cellular respiration, glucose is removed from the bloodstream.
74
Why do men burn more calories than women doing the same tasks?
Men generally have more muscle mass and are therefore use more calories to do tasks.
75
Any human will have a higher metabolic rate the more ____ they have
the more muscle mass they have
76
Testosterone promotes ____ fat while estrogen promotes ___ fat. How do they change fat in hips and thighs
testosterone- visceral fat which decreases fat in hips and thighs estrogen- subcutaneous fat which increases fat in hips and thighs
77
What is subcutaneous fat?
considered a tissue that stores calories in the form of lipid molecules
78
What are adipokines?
Cytokines from visceral fat. Adipokines are important modulators of appetite and satiety, energy expenditure and activity, fat distribution, adipocyte function, glucose and lipid metabolism, insulin sensitivity, chronic inflammation, and other processes.
79
Individuals with more visceral fat are more at risk for ____
more at risk for liver disease, type II diabetes, and obesity. Visceral fat- testosterone
80
Define High blood pressure
consistent elevated pressure within the arteries and arterioles leading to strain on the heart and damage to vessel walls.
81
What is Atherosclerosis?
build up of cholesterol and a resulting inflammatory process narrows the diameter of one or many arterioles. risk factor for MI
82
Define Stroke
an interruption in blood flow in the brain that kills neurons due to a traveling clot and/or a cholesterol plaque. Risk factor for MI
83
Define Myocardial Infarction
also known as a heart attack-occurs when their is an obstruction in the blood flow within the heart killing cardiac muscle cells.
84
Endothelial cells (lining of blood vessels) express androgen receptors. Androgens promote ___, making ___ more likely (2 answers)
androgens promote stickiness of these cells, making atherosclerosis more likely. androgens promote vasoconstriction, making high blood pressure more likely
85
How is the promotion of blood clotting both good and bad due to estrogen? Issues with exogenous estrogen?
protective in terms of injury but increases risk of thrombosis Women that take exogenous estrogen like birth control are more attack risk of the negative effects of blood clotting.
86
In Male to Female transition, risks factors with testosterone are ___. In F to M, cardioprotective effects of estrogen are ___. Why?
M-F: keeps risk factors from testosterone signaling F-M: lose cardioprotective effects of estrogen Due to puberty hormonal changes that cannot be reversed.
87
Where is Progesterone made?
Ovary, adrenal glands, and testes
88
What does progesterone do to aldosterone?
reduces the effects of aldosterone(retains H2O) so it is a mild diuretic.
89
What does progesterone do to smooth muscle contractility (menstruation/birth)?
Decreases smooth muscle contractility which prevents menstruation and birth
90
Sudden drops in hormone levels at menopause leads to:
decreasing bone and muscle mass, increasing fat mass, hot flashes and night sweats, mood changes
91
How does hormone replacement therapy affect muscle mass?
both strength and lean muscle mass improve with HRT and exercise
92
What are Phytoestrogens?
estrogen like compounds from plants have weak affinity for ER
93
What are ER antagonists used for ?
breast cancer treatment, treatment for gynecomastia(breast development in men), F to M transition
94
What are reasons to use ER agonists?
birth control, hormone replacement therapy, M to F transition, phytoestrogens.
95
What are examples of PR agonists?
birth control, hormone replacement therapy, M to F transition, morning after pills

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