Quiz 1 Flashcards

Question

Are results of pseudoscience verifiable and repeatable?

Answer 1

No, only science has verifiable and repeatable results

Answer 2

Yes, they have claims of widespread usefulness, while science limits those claims

Answer 3

Yes (vs. science = accurate measurements)

Answer 4

Constructs are conceptualized at the theoretical plane (proposition that a construct A leads to construct B by a cause-effect relationship) Empirical plane is the experiment - variables are operationalized and measured at the empirical (observational) plane - independant variable --> hypothesis --> dependant variable

Answer 5

In answering our question, we advance one or more tentative explanations (hypotheses). We then use deduction to narrow down the tentative explanations to the most plausible explanation based on logic and reasonable premises (based on our understanding of the phenomenon under study). Researchers must be able to move back and forth between inductive and deductive reasoning if they are to post extensions or modifications to a given model or theory, or built better ones, which are the essence of scientific research.

Answer 6

Deduction is the process of drawing conclusions about a phenomenon or behavior based on theoretical or logical reasons and an initial set of premises. (from general to specific) o Derive a hypothesis from a theory, use a general principle to reach more specific conclusion o E.g. if you have a stomach ulcer, THEN this additional medical test (e.g. barium swallow) should yield the following result (e.g. ulcer visible on X-ray) Induction is the process of drawing conclusions based on specific facts or observed evidence. Induction occurs when we observe a fact and ask, “Why is this happening?” (from specific to general; from observations to a theory); ex. diagnosing someone based on symptoms o Use specific facts to form a general conclusion o E.g. gather specific information on your patients’ symptoms and then form a hypothesis o E.g. gather facts from past research studies

Answer 7

``` 1- Creative 2- Communication 3- Open-minded 4- Skepticism 5- Objective 6- Empiricism ```

Answer 8

Applied research is research that seeks to answer a question in the real world and to solve a problem. Basic research is research that fills in the knowledge we don't have; it tries to learn things that aren't always directly applicable or useful immediately Basic research's goal is to generate/expand knowledge in general and is the basis for applied research. Applied research attempts to solve a practical problem

Answer 9

Natural science: Looks at objects or phenomenons | Social science: collection of disciplines looking at people

Answer 10

``` 1- Project management 2- Problem solving 3- Critical thinking 4- Analytical skills (accuracy/precision) 5- Communication skills ```

Answer 11

Multidisciplinary: People from different disciplines working together on a common question, and they bring to the group their own disciplinary perspective (don't view it from other disciplines, nor use the methods of other disciplines). Interdisciplinary: People from different disciplines working together on a common question, and they - as a group - integrate and combine their different methods and approaches to address that question; folks try to better view the issue from other perspectives. Transdisciplinary: People with interdisciplinary skills working together on a common question, and they - as a group of people who already have a high level of interdisciplinary skills - develop methods that cut across all disciplines to address that question.

Answer 12

- Helps gain understanding - Helps to ask a better, more specific question - Ultimately advance overall knowledge

Answer 13

- Introspection (What do I do? think? feel?) - Focus on the exception to the rule - Matter of degree (gray areas, focus on variables in terms of amount, quantity, strength, volume, time, etc.) - Change the direction - Don't forget about step 1 (question) and step 2 (background info)

Answer 14

- One you feel passionate about | - Are empirical (i.e. you can use measurements to test the question)

Answer 15

``` Current Relevant Accurate Authority Purpose ```

Answer 16

Popular articles: Entertainment, current awareness, research summaries Scholarly articles: Reports original research, review of previously published studies

Answer 17

Popular articles: General public | Scholarly articles: Student, scholars, researchers

Answer 18

Popular articles: Journalists | Scholarly articles: Researchers, academics

Answer 19

Popular articles: Shorter articles, contain photos/advertisement, published daily, weekly or monthly, proofread/reviewed by editors, sources often not cited Scholarly articles: Describe research methodologies, contains charts, graphs and tables, published quarterly or annually, reviewed by editorial board/peer reviewed, sources cited in reference lists/bibliographies

Answer 20

Hypothesis: An EDUCATED guess, based on observation, about the causes or outcomes of an event (how variables are related); can be disproven but not proven to be true. Something that is possible

Answer 21

Theory: Summarizes hypothesis (or group of hypotheses) supported with repeated tests; an “accepted hypothesis”, can be disproven.

Answer 22

Possible vs certainty; substantiated vs. not, limited data vs. lots, specific observations vs. general

Answer 23

Similar: Testable, falsifiable

Answer 24

- Justifiable - Testable - Predicts a relationship between 2 or more variables - Not vague - concepts should be clearly defined and based on sound reasoning

Answer 25

- Causal/associative - Simple/complex - Null Directionality

Answer 26

Simple: Only one measured outcome Complex: Many measured outcomes

Answer 27

Control independent variable so you know what causes what

Answer 28

1. Key variables associated with your hypothesis (Variables, constant, Conceptual --> operational variables) 2. Study design (Independent, dependant variables) 3. Research protocol (Detailed series of steps on how to conduct the experiment, Proven? Novel?, Chemicals and equipment? Scripts and surveys?) 4. Analyzing data (Bring together distinct pieces of information, Set by hypothesis and experimental design, Basic features of data --> descriptives --> more complex)

Answer 29

It is the passive dissemination of knowledge. Potential users need to seek out "pull" information e.g. publications of peer-reviewed articles, present findings in academic meetings (talks, posters)

Answer 30

A dynamic and iterative process that includes the synthesis, dissemination, exchange and ethically- sound application of knowledge to improve the health of a population, provide more effective health care services and products, and strengthen the health care system.

Answer 31

Creating knowledge:  Deriving knowledge from primary studies, such as randomized controlled trials (Knowledge Inquiry)  Synthesizing primary studies to form secondary knowledge, such as systematic reviews or meta-analyses  Generating knowledge tools or products (third-generation knowledge) such as practice guidelines, decision aids or care pathways based on best available evidence distilled from synthesized knowledge Applying knowledge:  Identifying the problem and identifying, reviewing and selecting knowledge  Adapting knowledge to local context  Assessing barriers and facilitators to knowledge use  Selecting, tailoring and implementing interventions to address barriers to knowledge use  Monitoring knowledge use  Evaluating outcomes of knowledge use  Developing mechanisms to sustain knowledge use

Answer 32

Government, private sector/businesses, foundations/individuals Success rate: ≈20%

Answer 33

* Lack of new or original idea * Diffuse, superficial or unfocused research plan * Lack of knowledge in published works * Lack of experience in the essential methods * Uncertainty about future directions * Questionable reasoning in experimental methds * Failure to discuss potential obstacles or alternative methods • Absence of an acceptable scientific rationale * Unrealistic large amount of work * Lack of sufficient experimental detail * Uncritical approach

Answer 34

Comes from the Nuremberg (Doctor's) trials where unethical research was performed by Nazi German physicians on Jews. Military tribunals by allied forces against 23 leading German physicians and administrators. Military tribunals by allied Forces against 23 leading German physicians and administrators Created by 3 US judges who presided the doctor’s trial – but all claim sole authorship. Still unclear who wrote them.

Answer 35

1 - Need the voluntary consent of human subjects 2 - The experiments should aim at positive results for society that cannot be procured in some other way. 3- Experiments should be based on previous knowledge (e.g. an expectation derived from animal experiments) that justifies the experiment 4- Experiments should not be conducted when there is any reason to believe that it implies a risk of death or disabling injury 5- Should be setup in a way that avoids unnecessary mental and physical risks and injuries. 6- The risks of the experiments should be in proportion to (not exceed) the expected humanitarian benefits 7- Preparations and facilities should be provided that adequately protect the subject against the experiment's risk 8- The experiment should be conducted only by scientifically qualified persons 9- During the course of the experiment, the human subject should be at liberty to bring the experiment to an end 10 - The medical staff must stop the experiment at any point when they observe that continuation would be dangerous

Answer 36

Took place in alabama from 1932 to 1972 Conducted by the US public health services Purpose: observe the natural progression of untreated syphilis in rural African-American men in Alabama under the guise of receiving free health care from the United States government. To understand the disease's natural history throughout time and to also determine proper treatment dosage for specific people and the best time to receive injections of treatments. Participant were Untreated syphilis black males: African Americans from Alabama Participants got promises to get free health insurance and some money; did not get those benefits o Were told the study would last 6 months and lasted 40 years o Were not told the real motivation behind the study o Treatment for syphilis was found during the course of the study but was withheld from the participants o They prevented participants from accessing syphilis treatment programs available to other residents o None of the infected men were told they had the disease

Answer 37

After Tuskegee – National commission for the protection of human services of biomedical and behavioural research (1974) as first US national body to shape bioethics policy Prompted by Tuskegee Report summarizing key ethical principles and guidelines for research on human subjects

Answer 38

Non-profit federal organization - Ensures protection and promotion of human subjects research in institutions - Ensures that proposed work complies with regulations, guidelines and ethical principles

Answer 39

Board is comprised of scientists, ethicist, lawyer and community member 5 members including: 2+ who have expertise in relevant disciplines, fields and methods covered 1+ member knowledgeable in ethics 1+ member knowledgeable in the relevant law 1+ community member with no affiliation with institution

Answer 40

1. Involves living human participants 2. Human biological materials, as well as embryos, fetuses, fetal tissue, reproductive material and stem cells from living and deceased

Answer 41

1. Publicly available information 2. Observing people in public places with no intervention or identification 3. Secondary use of anonymous information or biospecimens 4. Program evaluation, educational requirements 5. Creative works

Answer 42

"For the purposes of this Policy, 'minimal risk' research is defined as research in which the probability and magnitude of possible harms implied by participation in the research is no greater than those encountered by participants in those aspects of their everyday life that relate to the research."

Answer 43

Physical – pain, discomfort, injury Psychological – experience negative emotions, self-esteem etc. Social – loss of privacy, confidential information Economic/legal – overlaps with confidential

Answer 44

* An invitation to participate * Statement of research purpose in plain language * Identity of researcher and sponsor * Expected duration and nature of participation * Description of procedures * Explanation of participants responsibilities * Risks and benefits for participant and society * Assurance that they are not obligated to participate and can withdraw at anytime * Information on potential commercialization * Dissemination plans (to participant and others) * Contact information of researcher and ethical officer * Explanation of what information will be collected and how confidentiality will be protected * Payment and incentives * Statements that by consenting participants have not waived legal rights to recourse * Funding

Answer 45

When there is so much pressure to publish that researchers have tricks to make their results look better than they really are - pressure to get results. Positive-results bias, a type of publication bias, occurs when authors are more likely to submit, or editors are more likely to accept, positive results than negative or inconclusive results

Answer 46

Register study idea before study starts OR there are new ways to publish papers to preprint server (not peer-reviewed though) = may bring up a lot of information not found on research journals (null findings); but may have more flaws because not peer-reviewed… Think about the risks and benefits!

Answer 47

1. Peers: honor the trust our colleagues place in us (Science is a cumulative enterprise; Inaccurate results an irresponsible act impede progress) 2. Self – personal integrity in research realized through goals (Goals such as degree, tenure, recognition) 3. Public – directly affect health and policy; taxpayer funding (for research and university/job)

Answer 48

Fabrication: making up data or results and recording or reporting them Falsification: Manipulating research materials, equipment, or processes or changing or omitting data or results such that the research is not accurately represented in the research record Plagiarism: Appropriation of another person’s ideas, processes, results or words without giving appropriate credit

Answer 49

- Career ambitions (dissertation, tenure, fame) - Ulterior motives (COIs) - Financial benefit - Lack of training - Poorly managed research groups - Just a "bad seed"

Answer 50

Getting recognition for your discoveries and ideas; and/or financial gains for your discoveries and ideas

Answer 51

A conflict of interest in research exists when the individual has interests in the outcome of the research that may lead to a personal advantage and that might therefore, in actuality or appearance compromise the integrity of the research. A situation in which the concerns or aims of two different parties are incompatible. Person or group has multiple interests (i.e. commitments, goals, values), and one can possibly adversely affect motivation)

Answer 52

Ergonomics, ventilation systems

Answer 53

* Appropriate clothing and equipment (PPE) * Safe handling of materials in labs * Safe operation of equipment * Safe disposal of materials (hazardous; infectious) – wastes * Safety management and accountability * Emergency responses (spills, fires…) * First aid measures * Safety education of all personnel before lab work * Applicable to government regulations

Answer 54

2/3: Fundamental Research (to broaden knowledge of essential physiological structures and functions and animal behaviors) 15%: Medical or Clinical Studies (for medical purposes that relate to human or animal diseases and disorders) Development of Products or Devices (investigate therapies for humans and animals) Regulatory Testing (animal-based testing required by governments to ensure safety) Educational Purposes (teach and train to communicate scientific concepts, and develop practical skills)

Answer 55

CCAC, PETA (advocacy groups)

Answer 56

Research question --> computer --> in vitro cell models --> animal models (lower organisms) --> mice --> bigger animal models (monkeys) --> clinical trials

Answer 57

The CCAC works to ensure that animal-based science in Canada takes place only when necessary and that the animals in the studies receive optimal care according to high quality, research-informed standards. Autonomous and independent body funded by CIHR and NSERC. Includes: - guideline documents and policy statements - Accountable to general public - responsible to disseminate information - Complies statistics on animal use Has made training mandatory for all individuals intending to work with animals in research

Answer 58

Fish > mice > rats > birds > cattle > reptiles/amphibians > pigs

Answer 59

Replacement: Use of non-animal models such as microorganisms or cell culture techniques, computer simulations, or species lower in the phylogenetic scale (i.e. do not use animals when you don't HAVE to) Reduction: Use methods aimed at reducing the number of animals such as minimization of variability, appropriate selection of animal model, minimization of animal loss and careful experimental design Refinement: Eliminate or reduce unnecessary pain and distress

Answer 60

o 1/3 of patients do not get treatments of proven effectiveness o 1/4 of patients get care that is not needed or is potentially harmful o Up to 3/4 of patients do not get the information they need for decision making o Up to 1/2 of physicians do not get the evidence they need for decision making

Answer 61

Grant: A researcher pitches an idea for a study to a funding agency. The funding agency likes the idea and decides to fund it. The research ensures, and the researcher and funding agency have limited contact (except, for example, when the researcher needs to provide annual reports). Money gotten from organization to do work independently. Contract: A funding agency has a need for a very specific research study to be done. They solicit applications from researchers. They then issue a contract for this work. Thus, the researcher was initiated by the funding agency (and not the researcher like above) Come from organizations that have a question or a purpose in mind Cooperative Agreement: A hybrid of above. Though, as the research is conducted, the funding agency will interact with the research (they will collaborate). --> highest risk of bias

Answer 62

* Asking questions * Systematically finding research evidence * Assessing the validity, applicability and importance of that evidence * States the source of evidence underpinning recommendations * Integrates knowledge of other disciplines

Answer 63

Goes beyond: • Combined with professional’s expertise and judgment • Considers the client’s or community’s unique values • Considers circumstances to guide decision-making Used to make decisions in all areas of practice Work towards improving health outcomes in individuals, communities and populations

Answer 64

International Confederation of Dietetics Associations • Organization of national associations of Dieticians and Nutritionists (over 40 countries) • Support national associations • Set international standards such as International Code of Ethics and Code of Good Practice

Answer 65

1. Evidence-based dietetics practice is used to make decisions in all areas of dietetics practice to improve health outcomes in individual clients, communities and populations. 2. Evidence-based dietetics practice clearly states the source of evidence underpinning practice recommendations. To be relevant and effective, evidence-based dietetics practice must integrate knowledge of other disciplines. 3. Evidence-based dietetics practice is informed by ethical principles of dietetics practice and codes of good practice. This includes reflection on how a dietitian’s own perspectives or biases may influence the interpretation of evidence.

Answer 66

* Assess the situation * Ask the Question * Access the literature * Appraise evidence * Apply evaluated evidence into practice * Reflect, re-evaluate, and improve

Answer 67

Studies Synthesis (e.g. cochrane library Summaries (e.g. PEN) Systems (e.g. national guideline clearinghouse)

Answer 68

o Clinical practice guidelines and standards o Should be consulted in any evidence review o Recommendations usually graded o May be systematic reviews or consensus guidelines o National Guideline Clearinghouse (Public resource for summaries of evidence-based clinical practice guidelines; Guideline summaries by clinical specialties) o Example:  Laboratory method development and validation of dried blood spots  Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute:  Develop and implement clinical laboratory testing standards

Answer 69

Collection of databases with independent evidence to inform healthcare decision-making • Library of systematic reviews of randomized control trials of health-care interventions • Searches are explicit and thorough (reproducible) • Method to assess evidence is described (rigor) • Consideration of harms, benefits and costs

Answer 70

* Evidence Analysis Library * Nutrition Care Manual * International Dietetics and Nutrition Terminology Reference Manual

Answer 71

National commission for the protection of human services of biomedical and behavioural research (1974)

Answer 72

3 core principles: o Respect for persons: Protect autonomy, treat with courtesy and respect; informed consent; no deception o Beneficence: Do not harm; maximize good science and avoid/minimize possible harm to people and society o Justice: Reasonable, non-exploitative procedures used fairly; fair and equal distribution of costs/benefits • Stemming from 3 principles o Obtain consent from research participants o Assess risk and benefits of projects o Select participants in a just way

Answer 73

 Out of 4000 scientists, 100-200 observed research misconduct (60% fabrication or falsification; 36% plagiarism)  Senior or professors were involved as much as younger ones and students  Only around 55-60% was reported (by the responder or someone else) There has been a lot of concern about drug companies paying physicians, or giving them trips etc. Scientific journals – dozens of toxicology journals (we view them as the best place where research is published); 17 out of 18 had COIs with chemical, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, tobacco... companies/industry and were never disclosed

Answer 74

o Researchers: Funding o Subjects: Pressure from researchers to participate, financial incentives o REB members: Colleague involved in study o Institutions/university: Financial gains, prestige o Practitioners such as yourselves: treating colleague or close acquaintance, easier access to services

Quiz 1 Flashcards

(98 cards)