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ANIMAL PHYS > QUIZ 2 > Flashcards

QUIZ 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Camera + Compound are different how?

A
  • Camera: one lens
  • Compound: many ommatidium, each of which as their own lens and photoreceptors
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2
Q

Pupils constrict when…

A
  • Focusing on near object
  • Brightly lit environments
  • Parasympathetic input
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3
Q

Pupils dilate when…

A
  • Focusing on distant object
  • Dimly lit environment
  • Sympathetic input
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4
Q

Lens bulges when…

A
  • Focusing on near object
  • Ciliary muscles contract
  • Suspensory ligaments become more lax
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5
Q

Lens flattens when…

A
  • Focusing on distant object
  • Ciliary muscles relax
  • Suspensory ligaments become tighter
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6
Q

What are the processes that occur to ensure that light focuses on the retina?

A
  1. Lens accommodation
  2. Pupil diameter changes
  3. Convergence
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7
Q

A chimpanzee is grooming her young by looking closely at his fur for pieces of dirt, plants and dried skin. How do her eyes allow her to view these close objects?

A

Her eyes converge (medial rotation), lenses bulge, and pupils constrict.

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8
Q

As puma hides high up in a tree, he surveys the forest floor for dinner. After a few minutes he spots a rabbit hopping by in the distance. How do the puma’s eyes provide him with the ability to see this distant object?

A

His eyes do not converge, lenses flatten, and pupils dilate.

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9
Q

What types of photoreceptors do we find in the retina?

A

Rods: black/white, dim light vision, peripheral vision  images that aren’t sharp
Cones: color, bright light vision, high resolution central vision  image with high acuity
* Highest concentration of cones found at the fovea centralis (center of macula lutea)

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10
Q

What type of photopigment do we find in vertebrate photoreceptors?

A

Rhodopsin

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11
Q

What is phototransduction

A

It is the process in which light rays are captured and converted into electrochemical signals (action potentials.

Action potentials are sent from the retina along the optic nerve to thalamus and the thalamus ultimately sends this information via an action potentials to the occipital lobe for processing.

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12
Q

When light hits rhodospin…

A
  1. Transducin is activated
  2. Transducin activates PDE
  3. cGMP is broken down into GMP
  4. Removal of cGMP causes ion channels to close and this leads to hyperpolarization
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13
Q

describe how visual information is sent to the brain for processing.

A

Overall summary: The left visual field is processed in the right hemisphere and right visual field is processed in the left hemisphere.

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14
Q

What causes some animals to see many different colors while others are only able to see a couple?

A

Animals differ in the amount and type of photoreceptors that they possess (example: humans have red, green and blue cones, while dogs have blue and yellow cones).

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15
Q

What is a biological clock?

A

An innate mechanism of the body that regulates its rhythmic and periodic cycles, as that of sleeping and waking.

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16
Q

True/False: All biological clocks are circadian rhythms, but not all circadian rhythms are biological clocks.

A

False: All circadian rhythms are biological clocks, but not all biological clocks are circadian rhythms.

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17
Q

What region of the brain controls circadian rhythms in mammals?

A

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (anterior hypothalamus) is the site of the endogenous clock controlling circadian rhythms in mammals.

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18
Q

Describe how light and dark periods impact the release of melatonin.

A

The pineal gland hormone melatonin is released during the biological night and provides the body’s internal biological signal of darkness. Exposure to light both resets the circadian rhythm of melatonin and acutely inhibits melatonin synthesis.

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19
Q

Skeletal muscle

A

Striated; somatic control (voluntary); attach to bone

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20
Q

Smooth

A

Not striated; autonomic control (involuntary); lining “tubes”

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21
Q

Cardiac

A

Striated; autonomic control (involuntary); only in heart

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22
Q

Process of depolarization of skeletal muscle

A
  1. Action potential that travels down a somatic motor neuron
  2. The change in membrane voltage causes Ca2+ voltage gate ion channels at the axon terminal end to open
  3. Ca2+ goes in and interacts with proteins on ACh vesicles
  4. ACh is released into the synaptic cleft and binds to its receptor on the sarcolemma
  5. When the ligand gated ion channels open, Na+ (in) and K+ (out) move across the membrane but more Na+ moved compared to K+
  6. When threshold is met, Na+ voltage gated ion channels in sarcolemma open and depolarization occurs
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23
Q

What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum and what relationship does it have with T tubules?

A

SR is a developed smooth ER and it regulates the amount of Ca2+ in the sarcoplasm.

When an action potential travels down the T tubule, voltage sensitive receptors (DHPRs) within the T tubule are stimulated to change shape. This stimulates an opening of the RYRS channels which allow Ca2+ to leave the SR and enter the sarcoplasm.

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24
Q

What is contractile unit (functional unit) of a muscle fiber?

A

Sacromere

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25
Q

What are contractile proteins in a muscle fiber? Which is more closely associated with troponin and tropomyosin?

A

Actin and myosin fibers and actin is more closely associated with tropoinin and tropomyosin.

26
Q

During contraction, I bands get smaller/larger?

A

During contraction, I bands get smaller and the sarcomere shrinks. The A band does not shrink because it is associated with myosin length.

27
Q

Describe the state of a sarcomere at rest?

A

Actin binding sites for myosin are covered by T-T complex. Because of this, myosin is not bound to actin.

28
Q

What role does Ca2+ play in skeletal muscle contraction?

A

Ca2+ released from the SR binds to troponin which results in the movement of tropomyosin. This reveals the bindings sites for myosin heads on actin.

29
Q

What is the correct order of the actin-myosin connection?

A
  1. Introduction of new ATP  myosin detaches
  2. ATP is hydrolyzed which causes myosin to cock back
  3. Myosin reattaches to actin binding site forming a cross bridge
  4. ADP and Pi released which results in the power stroke
30
Q

What role does ATP play in the process with myosin and actin

A

The arrival of a new ATP molecule allows for myosin heads to disengaged off of their actin binding site.

31
Q

Do muscle excitation and contraction occur at the same time?

A

No! The electrical signal needs time to be converted into a mechanical response.

32
Q

How do muscles relax?

A
  • Somatic motor stimulation stops
  • Action potentials within the muscle stop
  • Close Ca2+ channels on SR and Ca2+ pumps return Ca2+ back into SR
  • TT complex is recreated and covers myosin binding sites on actin
  • With TT complex recreated no cross bridges can from
  • ACh lingering in synapse is broken down by acetylcholinesterase
33
Q

Provide an example of isometric, concentric and eccentric contraction.

A
  • Isometric: sustained gripping of a tree branch
  • Concentric: turtle pulling his head into his shell, chewing, bicep when climbing tree or putting foot in mouth
  • Eccentric: pushing against surface to stand, putting a baby down to the floor
34
Q

What factors influence the strength of contraction? (How can we increase force?)

A
  • Increase the number of motor units engaged
  • Increase muscle fiber size
  • Decrease time between action potential (increase frequency of action potentials)
35
Q

Creatine phosphate

A

Creatine phosphate transfers energy and a phosphate to ADP forming ATP.

The total amount of creatine phosphate and ATP stored in muscles is small, so there is limited energy available for muscular contraction.

However, it is instantaneously available and is essential at the onset of activity, as well as during short-term high-intensity activities lasting about 1 to 15 seconds in duration

sprinting and heavy weightlifting.

36
Q

Anaerobic glycolysis

A

Anaerobic glycolysis does not require oxygen and uses the energy contained in glucose for the formation of ATP.

This pathway occurs within the cytoplasm and breaks glucose down into a simpler component called pyruvate.

As an intermediate pathway between the phosphagen and aerobic system, anaerobic glycolysis can produce ATP quite rapidly for use during activities requiring large bursts of energy over somewhat longer periods of time (30 seconds to about a minute max

or during endurance activities prior to steady state being achieved).

It makes less ATP than aerobic respiration but, again, occurs quickly. Lactic acid is produced as a byproduct.

37
Q

Aerobic

A

utilizes oxygen to produce much more ATP.

This pathway occurs in the mitochondria of the cell and is used for activities requiring sustained energy production.

Aerobic glycolysis has a slow rate of ATP production and is predominantly utilized during longer-duration, lower-intensity activities

after the phosphagen and anaerobic systems have fatigued.

38
Q

Type 1(Slow Oxidative) Endurance

A

Aerobic respiration

Lots of myoglobin and mitochondria

Rich blood supply

Red in color

Slow myosin ATPase activity

39
Q

Type 2a (Fast Oxidative)

A

Endurance but less resistant to fatigue compared to Type 1

Aerobic respiration

Pink in color

Fast myosin ATPase enzymes

40
Q

Type 2b (Fast Glycolytic)

A

Power/Speed

Anaerobic respiration

Light in color due to reduced myoglobin

Few capillaries and myoglobin

Fast myosin ATPase enzymes

41
Q

What are the microscopic components of bone? Describe the function of each.

A
  • Cells: osteoblast, osteoclasts, osteogenic cells, osteocytes

o These cells work together to remodel bone tissue.

  • Matrix: organic (osteoid – collagen = provides flexibility) and inorganic (ions = rigidity) substances
42
Q

Endochondral ossification

A

(Top to bottom when labeling)

Epiphyseal line

Endosteum: lining the medullary cavity

Periosteum: location for muscle attachment

43
Q

What is the difference between red and yellow bone marrow? How does the proportion of each change throughout life?

A

Red bone marrow is the site of RBC production, whereas yellow is a location for fat storage. As we age red bone marrow transitions into being yellow.

44
Q

compact bone consist of..

A

it has osteons that are made up of concentric circles called lamella.

45
Q

what is limitation

  1. Whole body respiratory surface: the entire body of the animal serves as a site for gas exchange
A

a. Limitation: limits how big the animal can get

46
Q

How does nutrition and exercise play a role in bone health?

A

To help build strong bones an animal should receive a nice supply of calcium, vit D, vit K and magnesium.

Exercise helps improve bone density because the gravity and stress placed on bone causes them to respond by becoming stronger (stimulate osteoblasts to lay down more bone

47
Q

what is limitation

  1. Gills (internal): multiple layers of lamellae within aquatic animals
A

a. Limitation: requires that the animal lives in water

48
Q

what is limitation

  1. Tracheal system: branching tubes within insects
A

a. Limitation: limits how big the animal can get because as tracheal tubes get longer it is harder for gases to diffuse to the end of the tubes

49
Q

what is limitation

  1. Lungs: respiratory surface in mammals, birds and reptiles that possess high amounts of alveoli
A

a. Limitation: cannot sustain gas exchange in water

50
Q

What is a countercurrent mechanism and why is it advantageous to have along respiratory surfaces?

A

Countercurrent mechanism: water and blood travel in the opposite direction
* Maximizes the concentration difference over the length of the membrane which results in the animal taking in a maximum amount of O2

Concurrent mechanism: water and blood travel in the same direction

51
Q

What drives pulmonary ventilation?

A

Inhalation/Inspiration
1. Respiratory muscles (diaphragm and external intercostals) contract
2. Thoracic cavity volume increases (lung expand)
3. Intrapulmonary pressure decreases as a result
4. Negative pressure in lungs drives movement of air into the lungs

Exhalation/Expiration
1. Respiratory muscles relax
2. Thoracic cavity volume decreases (lung shrink)
3. Intrapulmonary pressure increases as a result
4. Positive pressure in lungs drives movement of air out of the lungs

52
Q

Why is it harder to breathe at higher altitudes?

A

As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases and so the number of molecules of O2 available. To compensate, respiratory rate increases.

53
Q

Differentiate intrapleural pressure with intrapulmonary pressure.

A

Intrapulmonary pressure is the pressure within the lungs/alveoli whereas intrapleural pressure is negative pressure the ensures that the lungs remain inflated.

EXAMPLE: During inhalation, the respiratory muscles (diaphragm and external intercostals) contract, causing the volume of the thoracic cavity to increase. This causes the lungs to expand, leading to a decrease/negative in pressure. Because intrapulmonary pressure is less than atmospheric pressure, air moves into the lungs.

During exhalation, the respiratory muscles (diaphragm and external intercostals) relax, causing the volume of the thoracic cavity to decrease. This causes the lungs to shrink, leading to an increase/positive in pressure. Because intrapulmonary pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure, air moves out of the lungs.

54
Q

External respiration process

A
  1. As blood enters the pulmonary capillary, it has a low concentration of oxygen and a high concentration of carbon dioxide. In the alveoli, oxygen concentration is high, while carbon dioxide is low.
  2. Thus, both gases move down their concentration gradients. Oxygen move from alveolus to blood and carbon dioxide moves from blood to alveolus.
  3. As blood leaves the pulmonary capillary, it is high in oxygen and low in carbon dioxide.
55
Q

Internal Respiration Process

A
  1. As blood enters systemic capillaries, it has a high oxygen and low carbon dioxide concentration. The tissue cells have a high carbon dioxide concentration and low oxygen concentration.
  2. Respiratory gases will move down their pressure gradients such that oxygen moves into the tissue cells and carbon dioxide moves out of the tissue cells and into the blood.
  3. As blood exits systemic capillaries and moves back towards the lungs, it is high in carbon dioxide and low in oxygen.
56
Q

O2 carried in blood in two forms…

A
  • 1.5% dissolved in plasma
  • 98.5% loosely bound to each Fe of hemoglobin (Hb) in red blood cells (RBCs) - 4 O2 per Hb
57
Q

CO2 transported in blood in three forms…

A
  • 20% bound to globin of hemoglobin (carbaminohemoglobin)
  • 70% transported as bicarbonate ions (HCO3–) in plasma
  • 7-10% dissolved in plasma
58
Q

Hb has more of an affinity for O2 if… (according to curve)

A
  • Lower CO2
  • Higher pH
  • Lower temp
59
Q

Hb has less of an affinity for O2 if… (according to curve)

A
  • Higher CO2
  • Lower pH
  • Higher temp
60
Q

Where do we find the control center for respiratory rate regulation?

A

Medulla oblongata

61
Q

What factors influence respiratory rate? Which is the most powerful stimulant?

A
  • CO2, H+, and O2 levels in the blood
  • Higher brain centers overriding intrinsic rate

ANIMAL PHYS (5 decks)

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