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ANIMAL PHYS > QUIZ 4 > Flashcards

QUIZ 4 Flashcards

1
Q

Nervous system signals

A
  • Neurochemical
  • Fast acting
  • Targeted
  • Short lived response
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2
Q

Endocrine system

A
  • Hormone
  • Slower to take affect
  • Diffused
  • More sustained response
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3
Q

What does neuroendocrine signaling entail?

A

Neurosecretory cells that produce and release neurohormones into the blood. The cell body is the CNS, while the axon extends out into the PNS.

Examples: hormones in the adrenal medulla (epi and norepi) as well as posterior pituitary hormones (oxytocin and ADH)

Exocrine glands have ducts and carry secretions such as sweat and mucus to the surface of cells, whereas endocrine glands synthesize and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream.

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4
Q

Hormonal

A

. Releasing hormones from the hypothalamus travel down the hypophyseal portal system stimulate the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary

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5
Q

Neural

A

Hypothalamic nerve fibers stimulate the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary

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6
Q

Humoral

A

Increased blood Ca2+ stimulates the parathyroid gland to release PTH

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7
Q

What are the three classes of hormones? How do they differ in the way they act upon their target tissues? Provide an example

A
  1. Amine: these hormones bind to membrane bound receptors (Ex: melatonin)
    a. Exception: thyroid hormone binds to intracellular receptors
  2. Peptide: these hormones bind to membrane bound receptors (Ex: insulin)
  3. Steroid: these hormones bind to intracellular receptors (Ex: cortisol, arthropod molting hormones, sex hormones)
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8
Q

cAMP signaling pathway

A
  1. Hormone binds to membrane bound receptor
  2. This activates G protein
  3. G protein migrates along inside of membrane and goes on to active adenylate cyclase
  4. Adenylate cyclase convert ATP to cAMP
  5. Active cAMP actives protein kinases that result in the cellular response
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9
Q

water and lipids soluble hormones

A

Water soluble examples include anterior pituitary hormones and adrenal medulla neurohormones. Lipid soluble examples include sex hormones and adrenal cortex hormones.

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10
Q

Posterior ADH

A

Renal collecting ducts

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11
Q

Anterior FSH + LH

A

ovaries and testes

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11
Q

Posterior oxytocin

A

Mammary glands and uterine smooth muscle

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12
Q

anterior ACTH

A

adrenal cortex

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13
Q

anterior TSH

A

Thyroid gland

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14
Q

anterior GH

A

targets many tissues

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15
Q

Anterior MSH

A

melanocytes

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16
Q

anterior prolactin

A

mammary glands

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17
Q

Stimulus: Low T3 and T4

A

Chemoreceptors in hypothalamus detect this

Hypothalamus releases TRH

TRH travels through hypophyseal portal system and binds to TSH secreting cells in anterior pituitary which stimulates TSH release

TSH travels through blood and binds to thyroid gland, promoting the release to T3 and T4

Thyroid hormones bind to body cells and increase cellular metabolism

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18
Q

What symptoms would manifest if an animal has over or under activity of its thyroid gland?

A
  • Hyperthyroidism: sweating, weight loss, anxious, high BP
  • Hypothyroidism: feel cold, weight gain, depression, low BP
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19
Q

Provide some examples of things that might excite the stress response in animals.

A

Stimuli that can activate the stress response in animals include temperature extremes, hostile environments, high levels of emotion, extreme physical exertion and injury.

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20
Q

What are pheromones and what purpose do they serve?

A

Pheromones are chemicals used by animals to communicate with each other. Animals send these chemical signals to help attract mates, warn others of predators, or find food.

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21
Q

Sexual reproduction

A

Pros: Genetic diversity

Cons: Requires a mate (two gametes), slower, less offspring are produced with each round

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22
Q

Asexual

A

Pros: Not mate required, produce more offspring over a shorter period of time

Cons: No genetic diversity

Parthenogenesis is a type of asexual reproduction without the event of fertilization.

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23
Q

Placental

A

offspring develop within the uterus of the mother and the placenta supports the pregnancy

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24
Q

Monotremes

A

mothers lay eggs and yolk supports the development

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25
Q

Marsupials

A

mothers give birth to underdeveloped offspring which climb into their pouches where they finish developing

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26
Q

Why do gametes need to undergo meiosis vs. mitosis?

A

Meiosis ensures that the gametes are haploid cells. It also results in genetic diversity.

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27
Q

How does meiosis differ in biological males and females?

A

Males
* Spermatogenesis starts at puberty and continues throughout the rest of the male’s life.
* After each round of meiosis four sperm cells that result.

Females
* Oogenesis starts before birth but stops just before birth. The primary oocytes are paused in prophase I of meiosis I. At puberty each month a select few are chosen to result division. This process continues until menopause.
* After each round of meiosis one oocyte is produced.

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28
Q

gametes:

A

female - oocytes

male - sperm

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29
Q

gonads:

A

females - ovaries

males - testes

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30
Q

major sex hormones:

A

females - estrogen + progesterone

males - testosterone

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31
Q

Are the gonads the only structures we find in the reproductive system?

A

no

Males: epididymis, vas deferens, urethra, penis

Females: fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina

32
Q

What is spermatogenesis? Where does it take place?

A

The process wherein DNA and cytoplasmic contents divide resulting in four spermatids from one primary spermatocytes. This takes place in the testes (seminiferous tubules).

33
Q

What is spermiogenesis? Where does it take place?

A

As the spermatids migrate to the epididymis, they undergo morphological alterations. It is in the epididymis where they fully mature and are stored under they leave the body.

34
Q

Draw out a sperm cell below. Label the structures and denote their function

A

Flagellum: movement

Body: house mitochondria that make ATP

Head: contains DNA and acrosome

35
Q

What is the physiological mechanism that drives the production of sperm? (Hint: we have to discuss the pituitary gland  )

A

1- Hypothalamus releases GnRH

2 - Anterior pituitary releases LH and FSH

LH stimulates Leydig cells which in response produce testosterone
+
FSH stimulates Sertoli cells which in response produce ABP

3- Stimulate spermatogenesis

36
Q

What are follicles and when do they start developing?

A

Follicles are composed of follicular cells and a maturing oocyte. They start developing before birth.

37
Q

At what stage of meiosis do oocytes pause in before birth?

A

Prophase I of meiosis I

38
Q

What do FSH and LH stimulate in the ovary during the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle?

A

LH stimulates theca cells and in response the theca cells produce the precursor to estrogen.

FSH stimulates granulosa cells and in response they take the estrogen precursor from the theca cells and convert it to estrogen.

Anterior pituitary hormones promote proliferation of follicular cells. This lead to the formation of the zona pellucida.

39
Q

What hormone is produced by granulosa cells proliferating during the follicular phase?

A

estrogen

40
Q

What does estrogen do

A

Estrogen negatively feeds back to brain to decrease secretion of LH and FSH. This increase in estrogen also promotes the thickening of the endometrial lining.

41
Q

What is ovulation and what causes it to occur?

A

The release of a secondary oocyte paused in metaphase II of meiosis II. Estrogen levels hit a threshold where rather than negatively feeding back onto the brain it positively feeds back, resulting in a LH surge.

42
Q

At what stage of meiosis is the oocyte in when it is ovulated?

A

Metaphase II of meiosis II

43
Q

What happens to the remaining follicular cells left in the ovary?

A

Follicular cells -> corpus luteum

44
Q

What maintains the endometrial lining?

A

The corpus luteum produces high levels of progesterone and moderate levels of estrogen which cause the endometrial lining to get very vascularized.

45
Q

What occurs in the ovary if fertilization occurs? Why?

A

If fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum stays alive because it is getting signals from the uterus in the form of CG that implantation was successful.

46
Q

What occurs in the ovary if fertilization does not occur?

A

If fertilization does not occur, then we do not have any production of CG so the corpus luteum dies.

47
Q

Why does menstruation occur?

A

When corpus luteum dies, progesterone (and estrogen) levels fall which causes vasoconstriction of blood vessels in the endometrial lining. This causes the functional layer to die and peel off the basal layer, leaving exposed blood vessels.

48
Q

What are the phases of the uterine cycle?

A

Menstrual, proliferative and secretory

49
Q

How do the events in the ovary result in the events that we see taking place during the uterine cycle?

A

The very beginning of the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle coincides with the menstrual phase of the uterine cycle. Menstruation occurs because the corpus luteum made in the previous cycle just died and by doing so progesterone and estrogen levels decline, resulting in the shedding of the endometrium’s functional layer.

As estrogen levels rise during the follicular phase, it stimulates the rebuilding of the functional layer in preparation for a potential implantation.

Progesterone levels are high after ovulation because the corpus luteum forms. This progesterone causes the endometrium to develop more. There is an increase in glandular secretion and blood vessel formation.

50
Q

What is estrus? How do estrous cycling animals differ from menstrual cycling animals?

A

Estrus is a recurring period of sexual receptivity and fertility in many female mammals (AKA heat). Compared to menstrual cycling animals, estrous cycling animals are generally only sexually active during estrus and rather than shedding their endometrial lining they resorb it.

51
Q

How do iteroparous and semelparous animals differ?

A

Iteroparous animals reproduce multiple times and do not die after giving birth because they store a lot of resources before and during pregnancy so that they can regain homeostasis after a pregnancy.

Semelparous animal have one reproductive event in their lives, after which they die.

52
Q

What relationship do we see between gestation length and animal size?

A

As body size increases, gestational length also increases

53
Q

What is fecundity? What are the benefit and drawbacks of being a low-fecundity animal?

A

Fecundity is an animal’s ability to reproduce. The benefit of being a low-fecundity animal is that there is less competition for resources and it’s less demanding on the body.

A drawback is that low-fecundity animals dedicate more time to parenting.

54
Q

How do internal and external fertilization differ?

A

External fertilization is seen in aquatic animals and involves the release of gametes outside of the body. Fertilization then occurs outside of the body as well.

Internal fertilization is seen in terrestrial animals and involves the depositing of sperm within the female’s reproductive tract where fertilization takes place.

55
Q

Where does fertilization occur and what factors influence sperm’s ability to get there?

A

Location of fertilization: fallopian tube
Factors
* Uterine contractions
* Chemical cues (from secondary oocyte)
* Capacitation
* Fallopian tube regulation

56
Q

Acrosomal

A
  1. Receptors on the head of the sperm make contact with the zona pellucida. This leads to the acrosomal reaction.
  2. During the acrosomal reaction, digestive enzymes in the acrosomal cap are released, allowing the sperm cell to burrow a tunnel through the zona pellucida so it can get close to the oocyte’s cell membrane.
  3. The sperm and oocyte membranes fuse and create a hole allowing the sperm to eject its nucleus into the oocyte.
  4. Entrance of a sperm pronucleus stimulates completion of meiosis II in the oocyte. Mature sperm and ovum pronuclei then fuse to form a diploid nucleus (zygote).
  5. Entrance of a sperm pronucleus also stimulates a rise in intracellular Ca2+. This Ca2+ comes from smooth ER. The increase in Ca2+ stimulates the exocytosis of cortical granules which results in the hardening of the zona pellucida and the removal of sperm receptors.
57
Q

What is the cortical reaction and why does it occur? How does it differ from the acrosomal reaction?

A

AKA: Slow block to polyspermy

Entrance of a sperm pronucleus also stimulates a rise in intracellular Ca2+. This Ca2+ comes from smooth ER. The increase in Ca2+ stimulates the exocytosis of cortical granules which results in the hardening of the zona pellucida and the removal of sperm receptors.

This process occurs to prevent any more sperm from fertilizing the oocyte.

The acrosomal reaction allows sperm to get closer to fertilizing the oocyte, whereas the cortical reaction prevents any further infiltration.

58
Q

What processes drive embryogenesis?

A

Cell proliferation, differentiation, morphogenesis

59
Q

What does it mean for a cell to differentiate? What drives cell differentiation?

A

Differentiation involves cell specialization, and it is differential gene expression that brings this about.

60
Q

cell differentiation (specialization).

A

As cells become more specialized, they are increasingly more fixed in the type of cell that they will become.

61
Q

What are stem cells? Why are they so valuable?

A

Stem cells are totipotent cells that can be directed in a lab to become many different types of cells.

62
Q

What is morphogenesis? Provide two examples.

A

Morphogenesis is the process through which an organism develops it shape.

Examples
* Neurons (and other NS cells) are produced and come together in such a way that forms the brain and spinal cord
* Epithelia, connective and nervous tissue cells come together to form the skin.

63
Q

What happens during the first week of life? Use the image to support your answer.

A
  • Zygote proliferates into a morula (32 cell) and ultimately a blastula which is a hollow ball of cells.
  • Implantation occurs around days 6-7 when the embryo is in the blastula phase.
64
Q

How is pregnancy affected when embryonic diapause occurs? Why might it be beneficial for an animal?

A

The uncoupling of fertilization from implantation and pregnancy. There is a decrease in activity when the blastula enters the uterus before it implants.

Factors that might lead to embryonic diapause include colder ambient temperature, breastfeeding another offspring, less daylight and metabolic stress.

The benefit is that the offspring goes through development and is brought into the world in ideal conditions for it and the mother.

65
Q

what does it meant to say that humans are segmented animals?

A

somites which are bilaterally paired blocks of mesoderm that go on to differentiate into things like skeletal muscle and bone. Having somites makes animals like us segmented animals.

66
Q

What is the placenta and what role does it play?

A

The placenta is an organ made throughout pregnancy to support the pregnancy in a number of ways.
* Delivers nutrients
* Removes waste
* Develops in a way to prevent the mother’s immune system from mounting an attack
* Produces hormones  CG, progesterone and estrogen

67
Q

How does implantation lead to placental formation? How does this process affect the ovaries?

A

Contact with the uterus endometrium leads to implantation of proliferation of cells to form the syncytiotrophoblast which produces CG.

CG signals to the ovaries and prevents the deterioration of the corpus luteum so that the endometrium does not shed.

68
Q

What role does melatonin play in pregnancy? What would be the consequences if there was a hyposecretion of melatonin?

A

Melatonin rises in the third trimester and acts synergistically with oxytocin via a melatonin receptor on the uterus. This promotes expression of the gap junctions and thus increases the uterus’s sensitivity to oxytocin which increases uterine contractility when oxytocin is released during labor.

Melatonin also passes from mom to baby through the placenta and helps entrain fetal circadian rhythms.

69
Q

mechanism of birth :

A

Stimulus: pressure on cervix from (hopefully) offspring’s head

Receptor: mechanoreceptors on cervix

Afferent Pathway: sensory afferent nerve impulses

Control Center: hypothalamus stimulates posterior pituitary to release oxytocin

Efferent Pathway: oxytocin travels through blood

Effector: oxytocin binds to uterine myometrium

Response: myometrium contracts

70
Q

mechanism of lactation :

A

Stimulus: pressure on nipple from offspring suckling

Receptor: mechanoreceptors on nipple

Afferent Pathway: sensory afferent nerve impulses

Control Center: hypothalamus stimulates anterior pituitary to release prolactin and posterior pituitary to release oxytocin

Efferent Pathway: prolactin and oxytocin travel through blood

Effector: prolactin stimulates milk production in mammary glands, while oxytocin stimulates ejection of milk

Response: milk leaves breast

71
Q

How does breastfeeding affect ovulation?

A

When lactating, GnRH release is suppressed leaving to anovulation (lack of ovulation).

72
Q

How do innate and adaptive immunity differ?

A

An animal is born with innate immunity which is nonspecific in that it doesn’t target any invader in particular. Innate immunity also does not have memory for invaders that it might have dealt with in the past.

Adaptive immunity does have specificity and memory. There are humoral and cell mediate forms of adaptive immunity.

73
Q

What role does skin play in providing immunity?

A

Skin serves a physical barrier.
Characteristics that make the skin uninhabitable for some pathogens include…
* Keratinized
* Dead cells flake off constantly taking microbes with them
* Dry and acidic

74
Q

What secretions released through an animal’s body serve to fight against potential invaders?

A
  • Mucous membranes to trap pathogens
  • Enzymes to breakdown bacteria
  • Sebaceous glands to secrete sebum
  • Gastric juice in the stomach neutralized pathogens
  • Tears protect the eyes
  • Urine
75
Q

What steps are involved in the inflammatory response? Feel free to use the image below to explain your answer.

A
  1. Bacteria enters body or tissue damage occurs.
  2. Inflammatory chemicals (leukocytosis inducing factor - LIF) released stimulate production of WBCs in bone marrow.
  3. Histamine is also released which causes arterial vasodilation and capillaries to become “leaky” so phagocytes can squeeze through (diapedesis). This also causes water to seep into the tissues resulting in swelling.
  4. Phagocytes detect bacteria via chemotaxis and move towards it through ameboid movement.
  5. Clotting factors in leaking fluids wall off bacteria.
  6. Receptors on phagocytes detect and adhere to on the bacteria.
  7. Ingestion (endocytosis) is triggered.
  8. Lysosomes fuse to endocytic vesicle to deliver enzymes and digestion occurs.
  9. Waste is discharged.
76
Q

How is a fever initiated? Should it be seen as a bad thing?

A
  1. Pyrogens trigger prostaglandin synthesis in the brain.
  2. Heat promoting center in hypothalamus is stimulated to increase set point temperature.
  3. Vasoconstriction, deactivation of sweat glands, shivering result to generate and conserve heat.

No! Fever is not an illness unto itself, but rather a mechanism that our bodies use to fight off infection. It has been shown to slow the growth of bacteria as well as enhance immune system response.

77
Q

How to B and T cells differ? Consider how they develop and what purpose they each serve in the immune system.

A

Both B and T cells arise from red bone marrow. However, only B cells remain in the bone marrow to mature. T cells migrate to the thymus for maturation.

B cells respond to extracellular antigens such as bacteria, free viruses and other circulating free foreign material.

Consequently, they differentiate into plasma cells and memory cells.

T cells fight against intracellular pathogens, cancers and transplanted tissues
To do so they differentiate into many subsets of T cells such as Cytotoxic T cells, Helper T cells and memory cells.

78
Q

Why is a secondary humoral response faster and larger than the initial/primary response?

A

In a secondary response to the same antigen, memory cells are rapidly activated. This process is quicker and more effective than the primary response.

ANIMAL PHYS (5 decks)

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