quiz 4 Flashcards
(219 cards)
1
Q
What happens to pyruvate is there is oxygen present ( what does it become)
A
pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl-CoA
2
Q
what happens to pyruvate if there is no oxygen present (what happens to it)
A
pyruvate is reduced in order to oxidize NADH back to NAD+
3
Q
Is glycolysis oxygen dependent?
A
No, happens during aerobic and anaerobic respiration
4
Q
what are the two types of fermentation
A
lactate fermentation and alcoholic fermentation
5
Q
in lactate fermentation, what is pyruvate converted to?
A
lactate
6
Q
where is lactate fermentation found in (3)
A
bacteria, plant tissues, skeletal muscle
7
Q
what is lactate fermentation used in (3 foods)
A
buttermilk, yogurt, dill pickles
8
Q
in alcoholic fermentation what does pyruvate convert to
A
first a CO2 is released and turned into acetaldehyde then into ethyl alcohol
9
Q
where does alcoholic fermentation occur in (5)
A
plant tissues, invertebrates, protists, bacteria, and single celled fungi (yeasts)
10
Q
what is alcoholic fermentation used in (2)
A
bread and alcoholic beverages
11
Q
what is the difference between facultative anaerobes and strict anaerobes
A
facultative can switch between fermentation and oxidative pathways (depending on oxygen supply)
strict anaerobes only carry out fermentation as their only source of ATP bc they lack enzymes for oxidative phosphorylation
12
Q
Is E.coli, found in human digestive tract, facultative or strict anaerobes
A
facultative
13
Q
what are strict aerobes and whats an example in the body
A
cells that need oxygen to survive because they can’t live off fermentation, like vertebrate brain cells
14
Q
what is abnormal glycolysis (and they generate large amounts of?) and name an example where it occurs
A
process of higher than normal rates of glycolysis, in most cancer cells, they generate large amounts of lactate
15
Q
what is the warburg effect?
A
cancer cells tend to favor lactate fermentation over aerobic respiration
16
Q
amino acids undergo (what) to remove the amino group
A
deamination
17
Q
Alanine is converted into what
A
pyruvate
18
Q
Aspartate is converted into what
A
oxaloacetate
19
Q
glutamate is converted into what
A
alpha ketoglutarate
20
Q
what is gluconeogenesis and does it use or produce atp
A
glucose can be made from intermediates like lactate or amino acids and it uses atp
21
Q
how are fatty acids converted to acetyl groups?
A
Beta oxidation
22
Q
a 6 carbon fatty acid yields what percent more energy than 6 carbon glucose
A
20 percent
23
Q
CoA directs products of many oxidative pathways into (which process?)
A
citric acid cycle
24
Q
Name the hypothetical timeline of evolution of metabolism (6)
A
Ability to store chemical energy in ATP
evolution of glycolysis (found in all living organisms)
anaerobic photosynthesis (using H2S)
use water in photosynthesis (brings o2 into atmosphere now)
evolution of nitrogen fixation
aerobic respiration evolved most recently
25
what is binary fission
prokaryotic cell division
26
is DNA in prokaryotes single or multiple, circular or linear, double stranded or single stranded
single, circular, double stranded DNA
27
where is the DNA of a prokaryote found
nucleoid
28
copying begins where? in prokaryotic cells
replication origin
29
does copying in prokaryotes occur bi directionally or uni directionally
bi directionally
30
how many genomes in each daughter cell in binary fission
one genome in each daughter cell
31
does the plasma membrane grow inwards during binary fission to separate the 2 daughter cells
yes
32
all eukaryotic cells store genetic information in (what formation)
chromosomes
33
how many chromosomes do human cells have (and how many identical pairs)
46 chromosomes and 23 nearly identical pairs
34
what are the 3 parts of the cell cycle
Cell growth and activity, including replication of DNA
Nuclear division (mitosis)
Division of cytoplasm (cytokinesis)
35
what is the difference between mitosis and meiosis
Mitosis: a growth process, divides replicated DNA equally with daughter cells with exact genetic copies of parent cells
Meiosis: process of sexual reproduction, produces daughter nuclei with half number of chromosomes of the parental nucleus (arrangement of genes on chromosomes are different from those of parent cell)
36
What is the role of molecular checks and balances in mitosis
to make sure there isn't any error in DNA replication
37
does the cytoskeleton separate DNA molecules into the daughter cells
yes
38
is DNA linear in eukaryotes
yes
39
What is the role of proteins when combining with DNA
assist in packaging DNA and expression of individual genes
40
each chromosomes is composed of (how many) DNA molecules and its associated proteins
1
41
what are chromosomes made of?
DNA and proteins
42
How do we fit DNA into a nucleus
packed it down into shorter length by histone proteins
43
what are histone proteins
proteins to pack down and compact DNA
44
name a nonhistone protein
chromatin
45
what is a nucleosome
a particle where DNA winds around histone proteins
46
how is a 8 protein nucleosome core particle formed
DNA winds around histones H2A, H2B, H3 and H4
47
what connects nucleosomes
short linker segment of DNA links nucleosomes together
48
what do nucleosomes and linkers appear as under an electron microscope
beads on a string
49
why is it called the 10-nm chromatin fiber and to what factor does it compact DNA
named from the diameter of the beads and compacts DNA by a factor of 7
50
further packing occurs in what chromatin fiber after the 10-nm chromatin fiber
30-nm chromatin fiber
51
what happens in the 30-nm chromatin fiber
nucleosome and linker are bound by the fifth histone protein H1
52
what is the solenoid model
predicts nucleosomes spiral helically with about six nucleosomes per turn
53
does chromatin packing continue at higher level
yes it does
54
what is the difference between euchromatin and heterochromatin
euchromatin is loosely packed (highly expressed) and heterochromatin is dense packing (less expressed)
55
what are sister chromatids
2 copies of the chromosome within the replicated chromosome
56
where are sister chromatids connected and how are they held together
they are connected at the centromere and held together by sister chromatid cohesin until mitosis separates them
57
what is chromosome segregation
equal distribution of chromosomes into each of 2 daughter nuclei
58
what is a kinetochore
a complex of proteins with centromeres where microtubules of the spindle attach
59
what is ploidy
the number of chromosome sets in a cell or species
60
what is a haploid (and what coefficient to n)
1n, one copy of each type of chromosome in their nuclei
61
what type of organisms have haploid
microorganisms
62
what is a diploid (and what coefficient to n)
2n, 2 copies of each type of chromosome in their nuclei
63
what type of organisms have diploid
most eukaryotes
64
what is polyploid (and what coefficient to n)
3 or 4 complete sets of chromosomes in each cell
65
in what type of organisms have polyploid
plant species
66
2 chromosomes of each pair in a diploid cell are called
homologous chromosomes (one from the mother and one from the father)
67
homologous chromosomes have the (same/different) genes in the (same/different) order in the DNA of the chromosomes
same same
68
what is a karyotype
individual's particular array of chromosomes
69
what is a diploid
cell possessing two copies of each chromosome (human body cells)
70
homologous chromosomes are made up of what?
sister chromatids joined at the centromere
71
what is a haploid and whats an example in the human karyotype
cell possessing a single copy of each chromosomes, human sex cells
72
what does interphase consist of
gap phase 1 (g1), synthesis (s), gap phase 2 (g2)
73
what is the only stage in the cell cycle that varies in length (where the others are uniform in length)
G1
74
G1 is the stage where many cell types stop dividing and are shunted into what phase
G0
75
can cells in G0 reenter g1
some can, some never resume the cell cycle
76
which phase is the period growth
g1
77
what happens in g1
cell makes proteins and other molecules that are required in S phase
78
what happens in s phase
DNA replication phase, chromosomes is copied and the copies are held together (sister chromatids)
79
what happens in the g2 phase
second growth phase. Cell makes more proteins and other molecules that are needed in the M phase
80
how much time is cell spent in each stage?
g1 is 10 hours
S is 9 hours
G2 is 4 hours
Mitosis is 1 hour
81
what are the stages of mitosis
```
prophase
prometaphase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase
```
82
which phase in mitosis is cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis) in
telophase
83
mitosis requires the formation of a new apparatus called the??
spindle
84
what is the main microtubule organizing center (MTOC)
centrosome
85
centrosome contains a pair of what?
centrioles
86
are centrioles copied in dna replication
yes
87
what is an aster in animal spindles
microtubules extending from the centrosomes produce starlike arrays at the spindle tips that form the poles of the spindle in prophase
88
in what phase does the centriole start duplicating
s phase
89
what stage does centrosomes start to separate the two centriole (old and new )
prophase
90
at what stage do the centrosomes split up to opposite sides of the nucleus
late prophase
91
what are the lines between the centrosomes that connect the two
microtubules
92
what happens to the nuclear envelope as the centrosomes duplicates and splits up
it deteriorates or breaks down
93
In prophase can you see chromosomes under a light microscope? Why or why not
yes you can because the chromosomes are condensed
94
does condensation continue throughout prophase or does it stop in g2
condensation continues through out prophase
95
what apparatus assembles in prophase
spindle apparatus
96
what makes up the spindle appartus
2 centrosomes at opposite poles with asters (a radial array of microtubules)
97
are there centrioles in plants
nope
98
are there asters in plants
no
99
in what phase does the nuclear envelop start to disintegrate
prophase
100
in what phase does the nucleolus disappear
in prophase
101
how do we decide when prophase ends and prometaphase starts (what structure indicates prometaphase has started)
the complete disassembly of the nuclear envelope
102
what grows from centrosomes
spindle microtubules
103
where do the spindle microtubules go to after projecting outwards from the opposite spindle poles
towards the center of the cell
104
what is a kinetochore
the point where kinetochore microtubules bind to at the centrosome
105
what is a kinetochore microtubule
microtubules that bind to the kinetochore
106
what are nonkinetochore microtubules
microtubules that overlap those from the opposite spindle pole
107
what is congression
when chromosomes begin to move to center of cell
108
how does congression happen
assembly and disassembly o microtubules with the help of motor proteins at kinetochores
109
what are the two type of spindles in mitosis
kinetochore microtubules and non kinetochore microtubules
110
what happens in metaphase
sister chromatids are alligned into the middle of the cell
111
what is the metaphase plate (and where is it at)
it is at the middle of the cell,(where the cell will divide) and it is the spindle midpoint where chromosomes are alligned
112
an image of a complete set of metaphase chromosomes arranged to size and shape forms a ____
karyotype
113
what stage do scientists usually do karyotypes
metaphase
114
what 2 things during chromosome condensation allows a unique characteristic shape
length and centromere location
115
what determines when anaphase starts and metaphase ends
begins when centromeres split
116
what breaks in anaphase that allows separation of sister chromatids
cohesin proteins
117
what are the 2 forms of movement in anaphase
Anaphase A and Anaphase B
118
what is the difference between Anaphase A and Anaphase B
Anaphase A: motor proteins at spindle poles pull kinetochore microtubules polewards, and disassembling those into tubulin subunits
Anaphase B: Nonkinetochore microtubules elongate the cell by having motor proteins overlap the NKC MT walking in opposite directions. NKC MT also push poles apart by growing in length as they slide along.
119
what indicates that telophase has started
spindle apparatus disassembles and chromosomes decondense and uncoil, returning to their extended state seen during interphase
120
what forms around each set of sister chromatids at the end of telophase
nuclear envelope
121
when does sister chromatids become chromosomes in mitosis
when they split up
122
when does the nucleolus reappear
telophase
123
RNA transcription resumes in what phase
telophase
124
what is cytokinesis
the production of 2 daughter cells
125
what is the furrow (contractile ring) in cytokinesis
girdles the cell and deepens until it cuts the cytoplasm into two parts
126
a contractile ring occurs in what organisms (3)
animals, protists, fungi
127
in plants, how do we divide the 2 upcoming daughter cells
a cell plate is formed and grows laterally until it divides the cytoplasm in two
128
where does mitosis occur in some fungi and protists and what can we see if we look at the end of mitosis under an electron microsocope for those organisms
mitosis can occur in the nucleus in some fungi and protists so we'll see fungi and protists with 2 nucleus
129
what type of protein(s) causes furrowing
microfilaments and actin and myosin
130
how is a cell wall formed in cytokinesis for plants cells
vesicles containing cell wall material congregate at the midpoint and fuse together and dump their contents together to form a cell wall to completely enclose the 2 cells with a continuous wall
131
where do the vesciles in plant cytokinesis come from
ER and golgi complex
132
what is the cell plate made of
the vesicle membranes
133
Meiosis occurs in what kind of cells
germ line cells (sex cells, diploid cells) in the gonads, testes and ovaries
134
what is produced at the end of meiosis
gametes (sperm and ova)
135
what is gametogenesis
production of gametes
136
how many sets of chromosomes do gametes have
1 set (haploid)
137
what happens at fertilization
nuclei of an egg and sperm cell fuse and restore the chromosome number
138
what is produced when an egg and sperm cell is fused
zygote
139
what is the goal of meiosis
reduce genetic material by half
140
does asexual reproduction generate different or identical offspring and through what process
identical through mitotic divisions
141
what 2 cell division process mix genetic information into new combinations
meiosis and fertilization
142
what are the two parts of the meiotic cycle
meiosis 1 and meiosis 2
143
what are homologous chromosomes
a pair of chromosomes (one maternal and one paternal) that have the same order (ABCDE and abcde)
144
duplicated chromosomes in the parental cell are distributed to (how many) daughter cells, each of which has ____ the number of chromosomes of the parental cell in meiosis
4 daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes
145
in meiosis 1, when does dna replicate and when are chromosomal proteins duplicated
S phase, also known as premeiotic interphase
146
what is crossing over and does it occur in meiosis 1 or meiosis 2
crossing over is the physical exchange of chromosome segments of homologous chromosome pairs and non sister chromatids. Occurs in meiosis 1
147
Completion of meiosis 1 produces how many cells with ___ the diploid number of chromosomes, with each chromosome still consisting of ___ chromatids
2 cells with half the diploid number of chromosomes, with each chromosomes consisting of 2 chromatids
148
meiosis 1 separates what and meiosis 2 separates what
meiosis 1 separates homologous chromosomes while meiosis 2 separates sister chromatids
149
in meiosis 2, daugher chromosomes segregate into (how many) different cells, each with the (haploid or diploid) number of chromosomes
4 difference cells each with the haploid number of chromosomes
150
what is synapsis
homologues pair along their length
151
what is crossing over and what is it also caled
homologous recombination and its genetic exchange between homologous chromosomes
152
what is reduction division
meiosis involves two successive divisions with no replication of genetic material between them
153
humans have how many chromosomes in their diploid cells
46 chromosomes
154
how many chromosomes pairs, and because of that what is the ploidy
23 homologous pairs (2n)
155
a human egg or sperm cell contains how many chromosomes and therefore what is the ploidy
23 chromosomes (n)
156
what is the structure that connects the 2 homologous chromosomes
synaptonemal complex
157
at what stage or phase does recombination occur
Prophase 1
158
what is the goal of recombination
to generate diversity
159
what word best describes "homologous chromosomes exchange genes"
recombination
160
what are alleles
different versions of a genes (A and a or B and b)
161
a homologous pair has how many alleles, and are they the same or different
2 alleles and they can be the same or different
162
are alleles combinations in each homologous pair unique for everyone? If not, name a counterexample
most of the time yes, except for identical siblings
163
what causes the unique combination of alleles
mixing mechanisms
164
what is the chiasmata
the physical point where the homologs non sister chromatids make physical contact for crossing over
165
at what phase does recombination occur in
prophase of meiosis
166
which meiotic division is termed the "reduction division"
Meiosis 1, the first meiotic division
167
meiosis 1 results in 2 daughter cells with what inside them
one homologue from each chromosome pair
168
is there any dna replication between meiotic divisions
no
169
does the second meiotic division further reduce the number of chromosomes
no
170
which stage does replicated chromosomes (sister chromatids) fold and condense in the nucleus
prophase 1
171
what stage does synapsis occur
prophase 1
172
what forms during synapsis, (other than the complex protein)
tetrads
173
how do we see the chiasmata under a microscope
we see thickened spots
174
what indicates that prometaphase 1 has started in meiosis
the nuclear envelope breaks down
175
does the spindle enter the former nuclear area in prometaphase 1
yes
176
are the sister chromatids removed in prometaphase 1
no
177
are the homologs removed in prometaphase 1
no
178
where do the kintochore microtubules attach to on the chromosomes in prometaphase 1
on the outside of each centromere at the kinetochore
179
how do we know metaphase 1 has started in meiosis
the homologous pair are in the middle
180
what holds the homologous pair together in metaphase
the terminal chiasmata
181
in metaphase 1, homologues line up on the ___
metaphase plate
182
is the orientation of each pair random in metaphase 1
yes
183
what is the equation for orientation
2^n where n is the number of chromosome pairs
184
what is the second major source of genetic variability in meiosis
independent assortment
185
what is independent assortment
one member of homologous pair is randomly attacked to the spindle from one pole, the other member is attacked to the opposite pole
186
how many different combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes can humans have
since there are 23 PAIRS, its 2^23
187
Which phase describes "spindle fibers begin to shorten and pull whole centromeres towards poles" in meiosis
anaphase 1
188
in anaphase 1, does each chromosome still have 2 sister chromatids
yes
189
what reforms in telophase 1
nuclear membrane reforms around each daughter cell
190
are the sister chromatids identical at the end of telophase 1
no due to crossing over
191
what happens in interkinesis
the single spindle in meiosis 1 disassembles and microtubules reassemble into two new spindles for the second division
192
describe prophase 2
chromosomes condense and spindle form
193
prometaphase 2
nuclear envelop breaks down, spindle enters and microtubules attack to the two kinetochores of each chromosome
194
describe metaphase 2
spindle microtubules align chromosomes on the metaphase plate
195
describe anaphase 2
spindles separate 2 sister chromatids of each chromosome and pull them apart and now chromosomes segregate to two poles
196
describe telophase 2
chromatids decondense to extended interphase
| spindle disassembles and new nuclear envelop forms around chromatin
197
how many (diploid/haploid) cells are made at the end of telophase 2
4 haploid cells are made
198
what is nondisjunction
spindle fails to separate the homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids leading to one pole with both chromosomes and one with none
199
in nondisjunction, zygotes have how many copies of a chromosome
3 copies
200
how are sex chromosomes in male and female of the same species
males are xy pair and in the absence of ay chromosome, females have xx pair
201
are the two x chromosomes in females fully homologous
yes
202
are the xy chromosomes fully homologous
no, only partly homologous
203
a gamete in the female (egg) may receive what kind of sex chromosome (x or y)
x
204
a gamete in the male (sperm) may receive what kind of sex chromosome (x or y)
x OR Y, either
205
what is the name of gametes in fungi algae or plants
spores
206
what are the 3 sources of genetic variability
crossing over
independent assortment
fertilization
207
can crossing over more than once in the same chromosome pair
yes
208
name one exception where 2 children can have the same combination of chromosomes
identical twins which arise from mitotic division of a single fertilized egg
209
in animals, which phase dominates the life cycle, diploid or haploid
diploid phase
210
in all plants (and some algae and fungi) which stage dominates the life cycle
alternate between haploid and diploid, depend on organism
211
in catabolism of proteins, proteins are broken down into what
amino acids
212
what is deamination
remove amino group from amino acids
213
3 phosphoglycerate can become which amino acids
serine, glycine, cysteine
214
oxaloacetate can become which amino acids
aspartate, asparagine, methionine, theronine
215
alpha ketoglutarate can become which amino acids
glutamate, glutamine, proline, arginine
216
what phase in interphase are centrosomes duplicated
s phase
217
how many of each histone per protein nucleosome
2 since its 4 histones and 8 protein nucleosome
218
what can pyruvate turn into in amino acids
valine alanine and leucine
219
what is an example of a strict anaerobe
botulism and tetanus
