Quiz 4 Exam 4 Flashcards
1
Q
what is energy essential for
A
-sustaining life supporting cellular activities
2
Q
what do cells need a continuous supply of and why
A
-O2 to support energy
- generating chemical reactions, also because you have to supply the mitochondria
3
Q
what has to happen in order to prevent fluctuations in PH and why
A
-the CO2 that is produced during reactions must be eliminated at same rate it is produced to prevent fluctuations in PH
-is this doesn’t happen then the the Ph changes to acidosis and alkalosis
4
Q
define respiration
A
-the processes that accomplish passive movement of O2 from atmosphere to tissues
-continual passive movement of metabolically produced CO2 from tissues to atmosphere
5
Q
how does the respiratory system contribute to homeostasis
A
-by exchanging O2 and Co2 between atmosphere, blood and tissues
6
Q
what are the two separate but related process that are encompasses in respiration
A
-cellular respiration and external/ internal respiration
7
Q
describe cellular respiration
A
-intracellular metabolic processes (mitochondria) which used O2 and produces Co2 while deriving energy from nutrients
-used in the consumption of O2
8
Q
describe external/ internal respiration (key word is exchange)
A
-External: exchange of O2 and Co 2 between external environment and cells
-air comes in, goes to the alveoli and O2 will enter capillaries and CO2 leaves (external respiration deals with external air)
-from the nose to the bronchioles
internal: happen at the tissue level and O2
-air comes out of the capillaries and to the organ that need it
-gas exchange at tissue level
-between systemic capillaries and their tissues
9
Q
what is in the upper respiratory tract of the respiratory system
A
-nose
-pharynx and the associated structures
10
Q
what is in the lower respiratory tract of the respiratory system
A
-larynx (voice box), trachea (air tube) , bronchi, lungs
11
Q
what are the two zones based on function and how are they different
A
-conducting zone: tube the conducts air to respiratory zone and back out after gas exchange
-nose to the terminal bronchioles
respiratory zone: the respiratory zone does the opposite
-the difference is based on how diffusion takes place
-where gas exchange happens in the bronchioles and alveoli
-starts at the respiratory bronchi and ends at the alveoli
12
Q
what are the structures in the conducting zone (remember cartilage and smooth muscle)
A
-nose (cilia) to terminal bronchioles (ciliated debris removal)
-passage way for air movement
-cartilage holds tube system open
-smooth muscle controls tube diameter
13
Q
describe the structures in the respiratory tract (hint: this is talking about the bronchioles and alveoli)
A
-respiratory bronchioles to alveoli
-site for gas exchange
-the alveoli are clustered at the end of bronchioles (this is the deepest place where gas exchange takes place)
-alveoli are tiny air sacs where gases are exchanged between air and blood
14
Q
what are Type II (surfactant- secreting) cells and when are they affected
A
-these cells prevent surface tension and preemies need O2 because there is a lot of surface tension
15
Q
what do squamous epithelial cells make up
A
-these make up the alveoli
16
Q
what placement for the capillaries need to have for optimal gas exchange
A
-they have to be next to each other
17
Q
why are colds more common in the winter during the summer
A
there is less humidity, which means that the whether is dryer and this dries out the nasal mucosa
-you also spend more time inside, and the closer proximity- dry nasal passaged making one more susceptible to a cold
18
Q
are you more likely to get a cold if you do not dress warmly during the winter
A
-no but keeping warm will help the immune system fight off colds
19
Q
what are the 3 separate functions in respirations
A
1.ventilation
2.gas exchange (diffusion): gas exchange between the alveoli and capillaries is external respiratory O2 is going into the capillaries
-External Resp.: air and pulmonary capillaries
-Internal Resp.: systemic capillaries and tissues (O2 leaves blood)
3.O2 utilization- cellular respiration (aerobic metabolism)
20
Q
Describe Boyles Law (altering pressure gradient)
A
-pressure of gas is inversely proportional to it’s volume
-you alter pressure gradient by changing the volume of the thorax area
-increase in lung volume decreased intrapulmonary pressure (because you want air to enter easily (air goes in)
-decreased lung volume, raises intrapulmonary pressure above atmosphere (air goes out) bc there is less lung capacity
21
Q
Describe Inspiration (contration of muscles, what muscle contract and volume changes)
A
-an active process
-contraction of muscle to change volume and create pressure difference
-contraction of diaphragm, increases thoracic volume vertically
-contraction external intercostals and parasternal, increases thoracis volume laterally (horizontally)
-increase in lung volume decreases pressure in alveoli, and air rushes in
22
Q
Describe Quiet Expiration
A
-its a passive process bc of relaxation
-after being stretched, lungs recoil
-decrease in lung volume raises pressure within alveoli above atmosphere and pushes air out
23
Q
Describe the changes in thoracic volume and sequence of events during inspiration
A
Sequence of Events:
-inspiratory muscles contract (diaphragm descends; ribs cage rises)
-thoracic cavity volume increases
-lungs are stretched; intrapulmonary volume increases
-intrapulmonary pressure drops (to -1mm Hg)
-air (gases flows into lungs down its pressure gradient until intrapulmonary pressure is 0 (equal to atmospheric pressure)
Changes in thoracic Volume:
-ribs are elevated and sternum flares as external intercostals contract
-diaphragm moves inferiorly during contraction
Changes in lateral dimensions:
external intercostals contract
24
Q
Describe the changes in thoracic volume and sequence of events during expiration
A
Sequence of events:
-inspiratory muscles relax (diaphragm rises; rib cage descends due to recoil of costal cartilages)
-thoracic cavity volume decreases
-elastic lungs recoil passively; intrapulmonary volume decreases
-intrapulmonary pressure rises (to +1 mm Hg)
-air (gases) flows out of lungs down its pressure gradient until intrapulmonary pressure is 0
Changes in thoracic volume:
-ribs and sternum are depressed as external intercostals relax
-diaphragm moves superiorly as it relaxes
Changes in lateral dimensions:
-external intercostals relax
25
Apply the Boyle law of application to the atmosphere (higher elevation)
-less pressure and more volume
-the further we are from the center of the earth there is more volume
-some # of O2 molecules, part of pressures is caused by O2 molecules bumping into each other
-there is more space for the O2 molecules to disperse
26
Apply the Boyle law of application to water bottles in elevation
-it expands to meet the lower pressure
-when you come back down it shrinks bc there is more pressure
27
Describe the transports of gas through circulatory system (solubility)
-solubility of O2 and CO2 in aqueous fluids is low, without another method to help diffusion of these gasses would be low (this can't happen on it's own so u need metabolic proteins)
-animals solve this problems with respiratory pigments
28
What are metalloproteins and what process is it apart of (remember pigments)
-respiratory pigments, these are the carries for O2
-proteins containing metal ions which reversibly bind to the O2
-this is apart of the transportation of gas through the circulatory system
-Hemoglobin is one of these
29
what is hemoglobin
-iron protein
-apart of the metalloproteins
-allows us to survive
-the maximum O2 that is allowed to be carried by hemoglobin is 4
-fills red blood cells
-increase oxygen carrying capacity 50- fold
-CO2 carried as bicarbonate bound to hemoglobin and dissolved in plasma
-think of hemoglobin kind of like an uber
-some CO2 can be dissolved in the blood
Co2 can be carried by hemoglobin in the form of bicarbonate
30
Describe the Influence of Po2 on hemoglobin saturation
-oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve:
S-Shaped, not linear
-how readily O2 binds to hemoglobin
-binding and releases of O2 influenced by Po2
31
what does Po2 mean
partial pressure of oxygen
32
describe functional anatomy of the respiratory system (permitting ari flow)
-to permit airflow into and out of gas exchanging portions of lungs, airways, from enterane through terminal bronchioles and alveoli must remain open
-respiratory diseases disorders can result in partial/ complete air way blockage
33
what does IRV stand for, what is it, and what is the typical range
-inspiratory reserve volume
1.9-2.5L
-what is left after normal breathing
-the maximal amount of additional air that can be drawn into the lungs by determined effort after normal inspiration
34
what does TV stand for, what is it, and what is the typical range
-Tidal volume
-normal breathing
0.4-0.5 L
35
what does ERV stand for, what is it and what is the typical rage
-expiratory reserve volume
-at the end of a normal expiration the quantity of air that can be expelled by forcible expiration
1.1- 1.5L
36
what does VC stand for and what is the typical range
-vital capacity
3.4 4.5 L
37
what can spirometry distinguish between
spirometry can distinguish between
obstructive pulmonary disease: increased airway resistance e.g (bronchitis)-more common
-used to test asthma and COPD
-same lung capacity, same VC, less air leaves as fast
restrictive disorders: reduction in total lung capacity due to structural or functional lung changes (e.g. fibrosis or TB)
-TB is fibrosis of lungs
-less common, reducing vital capacity
38
what are restrictive disorders
-VC is reduced or restricted
39
what are obstructive disorders (remember forced expiration value)
-VC is normal but it is slightly reduced
-Forced expiration value is <80%
40
Describe pulmonary disorders (what are they caused by, what are lungs considered and dont forget the lung compartments)
-diseases of one lung compartment (airway, interstitium , alveoli, or blood vessels) tends to affect others
-lungs can be considered external bc the lungs are open to the environment, exposing them to infectious agents, allergens irritants and carcinogens
-most lung diseases are caused by inhalation material
-lost pulmonary membrane is not recoverable
41
what is dyspnea (hint: break down the word)
-dysfunctional breathing
-leads to shortness of breath
42
describe asthama
-its an obstructive disorder
-typically happens during exhalation
-chronic inflammatory disease of small bronchi and bronchioles characterized by episodes of bronchospasm and air trapping
-vasoconstriction
-excess smooth m. contraction
43
how are normal breathing and breathing in asthma different (remember the bronchioles)
-in normal breathing bronchioles expand slightly with inhalation and constricts slightly on exhalation
-in asthma- constriction on exhalation is exaggerated and obstructs air flow
44
what is COPD and what are some examples of disorders(also what do these conditions have in common)
(chonric obstructive pulmonary disease
-umbrella term that covers pulmonary disorders
-chronic asthmatic bronchitis, emphysema, chronic bronchitis
45
what is asthma triggered by
-in most cases asthma is triggered by inhaled irritants
-like cigarette smoke
-polluted air
-inhalants, allergies, chemicals
46
what are some different types of asthma
-allergies
-exercise induced asthma
-cough variant asthma
nocturnal asthma
occupation (chemical) asthma
47
what is asthma treated with
-steroids: reduce inflammation
-bronchodilators- bind to beta 2 receptors which is inhibiting bc it begins to adrenergic receptors to dilate/ relax smooth muscle
48
what is emphysema (remember cigarretes and the bronchi)
-alveolar tissue is destroyed
-chronic progressive condition that reduced surface area for gas exchange
-decrease the ability of bronchioles to remain open during expiration
-cigarette smoking stimulates macrophages and leukocytes to secrete proteins digesting enzymes that destroy tissue
49
when would you need an endotracheal tube
-when the trachealis collapsing or inflamed
-you insert the tube so that trachea stays open
-in surgery to stop vomit from going to lungs and deliver medicine
50
what is lung cancer
-it is the leading case of cancer deaths in North America
90% of all cases are the results of smoking
51
what are the 3 most common kinds of lung cancer and describe them
Adenocarcinoma (~40% of all cases, this is the most common) originates in peripheral lung areas
Squamous cell carcinoma (20-40% of cases) in bronchial epithelium (second most common)
small cell carcinoma- (~20% of cases) contains lymphocyte like cells that originate in primary bronchi and subsequently metastasize (this is the 3rd most common)
52
describe respiratory control (hint: chemoreceptors)
-respiration is controlled through complex mechanisms involving the brain stem and the central and peripheral chemoreceptors
-the chemoreceptors are PCO2, Po2 and pH
-the chemoreceptors can pick up on levels of Co2 and Co2 or pH levels
53
define and describe the process of acclimatization (remember chemoreceptors)
-respiratory and hematopoietic adjustments to altitude
-chemoreceptors are more responsive to changed in Co2 levels (Pco2 )when Po2 declines
-substantial decline in Po2 directly stimulates peripheral chemoreceptors. results in an increase of TV and RR which causes in increase minute ventilation
-the result is that minute ventilation increases and stabilizes in a few days to 2-3 L/min higher than at sea level
-
54
what is minute ventilation
how match air leaves x min
55
how does EPO come into acclimatization to high altitude
-decline in blood O2 stimulates the kidneys at accelerate production of EPO (erythropoietin, this is a hormone released by the kidney)
-red blood cell numbers increase slowly to provide long term compensation
-EPO stimulates red bone marrow, and increased O2 carrying capacity
56
what can high altitude cause (this one includes symptoms)
-quick travel to altitudes above 8,000 feet may produce symptoms of mountain sickness (AMS)
-headaches, shortness of breath, nausea and dizziness
-in severe cases, lethal cerebral ad pulmonary edema
-you pee a lot to increase hematocrit
-pee about plasma volume, decreases blood volume and the blood is now concentrated. more RBC makes you more dehydrated
- the blood is more viscus
57
what is ingestion (Hint: absorption, calculation and 2 different processes)
-gaining access to environmental chemicals
-humans absorb nutrients (mostly through the small intestine) across the GI tract epithelium (requires ~30kcal/kg of body weight/ day)
-food substances often consumed in chemical form that can be directly absorbed
-GI tract digests food by both mechanical and chemical processes
58
what is mechanical digestion
-oral cavity (mastication)
-stomach generally solids <2 mm when you pass the pylorus); goes into the small intestine
59
what is chemical ingestion (this has to do with fats)
-nutrient specific
-e.g. consume TAGs (triacyglycerol-2 fatty acids attached to 1 glycerol) but absorb fatty acid and monoglycerides in small intestine
60
what are the accessory organs of digestion and what are the exception
-salivary glands
-pancreas
-liver
-gallbladder
-tongue
-most accessory organs with the exception of the tongue and teeth secrete hormones that help with digestion
61
what are the steps of digestion
ingestion: eating
propulsion: swallowing through the oropharynx
-peristalsis (alternating contractions of smooth muscle), with the esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine)
62
what is vital capacity, what is it used for and what is the equation
-the maximum amount of air a person can expel from the lungs after maximum inspiration
-a reliable diagnostic indicator of the persons pulmonary status
-VC= TV+IRV+ERV
63
What are the 4 layers of the the GI tract
1. Mucosa
-has epithelium
-lamina propria
-mucularis mucosae
2.Submucosa
3. Muscularis externa
-two layers of smooth muscle (the longitudinal and circular muscle)
4. Serosa
64
what are the intrinsic nerve plexuses of the GI tract
-the myenteric nerve plexus (in between the layers)
-the submucosal nerve plexus (in submucosal layer)
65
what is the lumen
-where the food stuff is
66
define the nervous system of the digestive system
-the enteric nervous system
-the neurons begin/ end in the gut
-influenced by and communicate with the central nervous system (but mostly the ANS)
67
Describe smooth muscle (dont forget sensitivity to stretch and own rhythm)
-the Gi tract muscle layers= smooth muscle
-involuntary
-contains proteins actin/myosin (but do not have myofibrils, sarcomeres/ striations)
-sensitive to stretch (stretch sensitive cation channels open and allow depolarization therefore allowing peristalsis)
-can generate own rhythm of contraction (this is similar the the action potentials of the pace maker cells)
-the contraction involves sliding of actin and myosin
68
what is present during the contracted smooth muscle cell (bodies, bodies, bodies)
-dense bodies (these look like little dots) anchor actin
-myosin sits in between the dense bodies
69
what is motility, where is it and what is the role of the upper and lower GI
-food propulsion and control
-upper and lower GI- largely CNS and reflex control
-the upper part of the GI is swallowing and the Lower GI is defecation
-in between the enteric nervous plexus' system and hormones
70
what is the role of deglutition in motility(hint: peristalsis, what is it coordinated by, what opens sphincters and the anticipatory wave)
-deglutition (swallowing) initiates peristalsis
-contractions due in part to smooth muscle stretch sensitivity
-coordinated by myenteric nervous system so it proceeds from mouth to stomach (increases peristalsis, which is coordinated by myoenteric nerve plexus
-anticipatory wave of relaxation aids in directional movement; especially important near sphincters (normally closed)
-the neural stimuli from swallowing opens the sphincters
71
Describe the phases of Deglutition (what does it involve, muscle group etc)
-it involves the tongue, the soft palate, the pharynx, the esophagus and 22 muscle groups
-it has 3 phases
1. Buccal phase
-voluntary contraction of tongue
2. Pharyngeal and esophageal phase (phase 3)
-involuntary
-control center in medulla and lower pons
72
When is Peristalsis less coordinated (sensitivity)
-in most of the stomach peristalsis is less coordinated (mixing waves)
-the stomach is less sensitive to begin stretched can expand to accommodate volume
73
when are peristaltic movements more coordinated
-they are more coordinated in the pyloric antrum to aid in stomach emptying
74
what is the pylorus(bottom of the stomach) opened by
-opened by the waves of anticipatory relaxation
75
what does peristalsis move (dont forget anticipatory relaxation)
-moves chyme (food mixed with stomach acid) through the small intestine and anticipatory relaxation opens ileocecal sphincter
76
what are the mixing motions of the large intestines called
-haustrations
77
how often do mass movements happen
1-4 times x day
78
Describe the control of gut motility
a)Enteric nervous system (local/ short reflexes) from the submucosal and myenteric plexus'
b) ANS input (smell, thought, taste of food activate the small intestine)
-the PNS specifically bc tasting and chewing prepare the stomach for digesting
c. Hormonal controls
Positive: gastrin (secreted y the stomach) increased motility
Negative: CCK, secretin (secreted by the duodenum) and decreases motility
79
what forces feces into the rectum
-mass movements
80
what does distention initiate
-the spinal defecation reflex (stretch receptors)
81
how does the PNS influence motility (contraction what colon and relaxation of what sphincter)
-stimulate contraction of sigmoid colon and rectum
-relax internal anal sphincter (the smooth muscle is controlled by the ANS)
82
how does the SNS stimulation affect motility
-stimulation normally affects motility, but strong stimulation like stress, causes a quick and strong increase
83
what does conscious control allow
-relaxation of external anal sphincter (skeletal muscle)
84
what does digestion depend on (secretions)
-the digestion depends on the secretions from multicellular exocrine glands working with secretory cells thoughout GI tract
85
what do salivary glands do
-salivary gland ducts open into the mouth (saliva)
-lubricates food
-dissolved food so nutrients can bind to gustatory receptors
-cleanses mouth with antimicrobial properties
-contain enzymes with initiate digestion
86
what do the intrinsic glands do (mouth)
-continuously moisten the mouth
-small glands dispersed throughout the mouth
87
what do extrinsic salivary glands do
-they produce secretions when ingested food stimulates chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors (sight and smell also)
-salivary nuclei in the brain stem send impulses along the PNS fibers in CN VII (facial nerve) and IX (glossopharyngeal nerve)
88
what does SNS activation do for the saliva
-it caused thick mucin- rich saliva
-strong SNS stimulation vasoconstricts bc of norepinephrine vessels serving glands, inhibits salivation (xero stomia) (this is dry mouth)
89
Describe the protective epithelial stomach lining (there are 3 factors)
1. mucus cells: double layer of alkaline mucus
-these are goblet cells that make the lining impermeable
2. tight junctions
-these protect the cells from getting damaged
3. rapid cells turnover
-epithelial cells
90
describe the gastric pits
-these are folds
-increase surface area
-divot in walls of stomach
-this is protection from stomach acid
91
describe the gastric glands (hint neural control)
-variety of secretory cells
-under neural (ANS, enteric NS and hormonal) control
-gastrin stimulates secretion
-duodenal hormones (CCK and secretin) inhibit
92
Describe mucus neck cells
-secrete thin acidic mucus
-dont worry too much about these
93
Describe Parietal cells )remember ph, and intrinsict factor)
-secretes about 2-3 liters/day of HCl (Hydrochloric acid)
-pH 1.5 3.5 denatures proteins in the food, activates pepsin and kills many bacteria
--secretes into gastric pits
-also secrete intrinsic factor; glycoprotein required for absorption of vitamin B12 in the small intestine
94
why is B12 so important and why do you need the intrinsic factor
-you need it to make RBC
-if you have no intrinsic factor then you have no B12 absorption and you get anemia and you need shots of B12
95
Describe chief cells (hint inactive enzyme) and where do they secrete into
-secrete in inactive enzyme of pepsinogen (this is a protease)
-activated to pepsin by HCl and by pepsin itself
-they secrete into the gastric pits
96
Describe enteroendocrine cells
-these are hormone secreting cells in the gut
-secrete gastrin, histamine, and somatostatin
-they do not secrete into the gastric pits, instead they secrete into the blood
97
what is the active form of pepsinogen
pepsin
98
How do you get hydrochloric acid
-parietal cells have a lot of carbonic anhydrase which catalyzes hydration of CO2
-Co2 is converted into H2CO2 (carbonic acid) which breaks down into H+ and HCO3 (bicarbonate)
-HCO3 (bicarb) is transported to the blood in exchange for Cl
-H+ pumped to lumen in exchange for K+
-Cl and H+ diffuse into the lumen net result is HCl
-pH in gastric pit is less than 1 and the blood is about 7
99
what is pepsinogen activated by and what is it converted to
-activated by HCl and pepsin itself
-converted to pepsin
100
what would happen if pepsinogen was in the active form
-it would eat the cell that made it
101
what is gastritis
-inflammation of stomach lining caused by anything that breaches mucosal barrier
102
describe peptic or gastric ulcers
-gastric ulcers are specific to the stomach
-breach of mucosal layer by the bacteria
-most are caused by helicobacter pylori bacteria (gram negative)
103
Describe bile (where does it open into)
-produced in the liver
- stored and concentrated in the gallbladder
-digestive chemicals and liver waste products
-phospholipids
-aid lipid uptake
-bile salts: bile mixes with foodstuff
emulsify fats: this helps break down fat for more surface area
-bile duct opens into the small intestine
104
where are enzymes secretes from
-from the pancreases acinar glands
-remember that the pancreas is a mostly exocrine gland
105
describe proteases (general idea, what it breaks down, what are they secreted as and where are they activated)
-breaks down proteins
-secreted as inactive proenzymes
-activated in the intestine
106
describe amylase
-glycogen and starch breakdown
107
describe lipases
-triglycerides
-breaks down lipids
108
-describe nucleases
- break down nucleic acids
109
Describe the liver and pancreatic secretion control (CCK)
-it is mostly hormone control
CCK: CCK+ bile and digestive enzymes
-the digestive enzymes stimulate pancreatic enzymes
-the CCK stimulates bile section from the gallbladder
-comes from the duodenum
110
Describe the liver and pancreatic secretion control (Secretin)
Secretin: Secretin+ bicarbonate rich fluid production from pancreases to buffer pH
-stimulates pancreatic duct
-comes from the duodenum
-secretes bicarbonate solution to secrete enzymes to neutralize the fluids coming from the small intestine
111
what does the sphincter of Oddi control what does it open via
-secretion entry into duodenum
-it opens via anticipatory relaxation
112
Detail the secretion and release of bile and pancreatic juice
1. Cyme entering the duodenum causes the release of CCK and secretin from the duodenal enteroendocrine cells
2. CCK and secretin enter the blood stream
3. CCK induces secretion of enzyme-rich pancreatic juice. secretin causes secretion of HCO3(bicarbonate) rich pancreatic juice
4. Bile salts and to a lesser extend secretin transported via blood stream stimulate liver to produce bile more rapidly
5. CCK (via bloodstream) causes gallbladder to contract and hepatopancreatic sphincter to relax and the bile enters the duodenum
6. During cephalic and gastric phases vagal nerve stimulation causes weak contractions of gallbladder
113
what is the main protease
-trypsinogen which then turns into trypsin
114
Describe small intestine secretions (crypts)
-copious fluid secretion in crypts of Lieberkuhn (intestinal crypts) (about 1 gal/day of neutral fluids)
Digestive enzymes from intestinal epithelial cells: come from the ducts
-Dipeptidases (final part of the digestive process) , disaccharidases (2 sugars), lipases
115
across what are nutrients absorbed
the epithelium of the GI tract
116
why are some nutrients degraded and why are dietary sources crucial (chemical energy)
-to liberate chemical energy while the rest are used as building blocks
-many macromolecules cannot be synthesized from the beginning
117
what are essential and nonessential nutrients
Essential: must be obtained from diet (most vitamins and minerals)
Nonessential: can be produced from other molecules (glucose bc out body can make it)
118
Describe the transportation of nutrients across plasma membranes
-digested nutrients transported from gut to extracellular fluids to be imported by storage and target tissues
-nutrient transport depends on chemical composition (lipid vs water soluble)
-many transported through mucosa of intestinal villa to blood stream via active transport mechanisms (e.g. Na)
-Co transmitters
-H2O soluble need additional transportation
119
Describe the Na/ Glucose Cotransporter
-sodium glucose linked transporter (SGLT): on apical membrane of cells that line SI
-highly favorable inwardly directed NA electrochemical gradient can drive uphill accumulation of glucose from Small intestine lumen into the cell
-this is for water soluble
-depends on Na pump and active transport
120
Describe digestion as it related to hydrolysis (don't forget about breaking bonds)
-hydrolysis catalyzed by digestive enzymes
-breaking bonds between sugar molecules (monosaccharides), amino acids and fatty acids
121
what breaks the bonds of proteins
enzymes secreted by the stomach (pepsin), pancreas and intestinal epithelium and HCl that breaks bonds
-proteins to peptides in stomach and small intestine lumen via protases (trypsin--> trosinogen)
-peptides (final cleaving of amino acids) to tri and dipeptides and amino acids via peptidases on brush border of intestinal epithelial cells
-amino acids transported across epithelial membrane mainly by Na cotransport
122
what are the main types of carbohydrates consumed by animals
-polysaccharides (glycogen, starch, cellulose and chitin)
-Disaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose)
123
describe salivary and pancreatic amylase
-they hydrolyze complex carbohydrates mostly to disaccharides (dissolves sugar)
-disaccharidases(final cleaving into single glucose food) maltase(breaks maltose) , lactase(breaks lactose) and sucrase (breaks down sucrose) are in the brush of intestinal epithelium
-monosaccharides glucose and galactose are absorbed by sodium cotransport
124
what is fructose absorption helped by
-facilitated diffusion
125
What enzymes are secreted in the mouth, stomach and small intestine when carbs need to be digested. Make sure to include what the carbs are broken down to and where they are absorbed
Mouth: salivary amylase
Stomach: no enzyme
Small intestine: pancreatic amylase and disaccharidases
Broken down into monosaccharides and it is absorbed into capillaries
126
What enzymes are secreted in the mouth, stomach and small intestine when proteins need to be digested. Make sure to include what the proteins are broken down to and where they are absorbed
Mouth: no enzyme
Stomach: pepsin and HCL
Small intestine: trypsin and dipeptidases
Broken down to amino acids and absorbed into the capillaries
127
What enzymes are secreted in the mouth, stomach and small intestine when fats need to be digested. Make sure to include what the fats are broken down to and where they are absorbed
Mouth: lingual lipase (small extent)
Stomach: no enzyme
Small intestine: bile/ lipase
broken down to glycerol and free fatty acids
absorbed through the lymph lacteals
128
Describe Lipids and lipolytic enzymes (remember water soluble)
-these are fats and they are lipid soluble (hydrophobic), ends up as large globules of fat in the stomach and intestines
-lipolytic enzymes are water soluble thus they can only act as surface fat
129
what does it mean when you say that bile is amphipathic
-one end is lipid soluble and one with water soluble
130
what happens when fat globules mix with bile
-bile prevents globules from coming together again and end up with smaller glob of fat called micelles
-micelles easier to break down by lipase due to greater exposed surface area
131
why do lipids need to be carried in the blood as lipoprotein complexes
-bc they are hydrophobic
132
what is LDL
-low density lipoprotein (52 cholesterol and 8 triglyceride)
133
what is HDL
-high density lipoproteins
-the higher the level the less at risk you are for heart disease
-cholesterol is 14 and triglyceride is 8
134
Why can't the stomach absorb nutrients
-the epithelial cells are covered by alkaline mucus and not directly exposed to chyme
-epithelial cells lack specialized transport mechanisms (this means that there is no co transports present here)
-the gastrin lining is impermeable to water (thus H2O soluble molecules like glucose can't pass)
-digestion has not proceeded to competition by the time that chyme leaves the stomach
-carbs, lipids, and proteins only partially
135
Describe fat soluble vitamins
-remember ADEK
-these are absorbed in the small intestine
-these are carried by micelles and then diffuse into absorptive cells
-you can over dose on these they stick to fat globules
-this is the first category
136
Descrube water soluble vitamins and what are they absorbed by
-these are vitamin C and B
-these are absorbed by diffusion or by passive, or active transporters
-you can not overdose on these bc you pee them out
-this is the second category
-absorbed in the small intestine
137
what does vitamin B12 bind with
-intrinsic factor and it is absorbed by enydcytosis in the ileum
-this is the only exception
138
Describe minerals
-metallic elements that participate in protein structure
-these are inorganic
-calcium
-phosphorus
-iron
-copper
-zinc
-most are absorbed along the GI tract by specific transport
139
Describe the small role that the large intestine plays in absorption
-water and electrolytes are reclaimed
-vitamins k and B produced by bacteria and absorbed
-major mechanical function= feces propulsion towards anus
-the colon is not essential for life
140
what is reproduction largely apart of
-the endocrine system bc it mediates it
-the hypothalamus/the hypothalamic hypofacial portal system / pituitary and the reproductive structures are used
141
what are the ovaries
-the eggs stored and develop ( these are hte gonads)
142
what is the Oviduct/ fallopian tube
-transports oocyte (gives rise to the egg) from ovary to uterus
- fertilization occurs here
-Also stores the egg
143
what is the uterus
-hollow organ in which embryo develops
144
what is the cervix
-gateway between the uterus and the vagina
145
what is the vagina
-sperm enters the female body
-travel through the cervix to the uterus and fallopian tubes
146
what are the mammary glands/ breast
-produce and deliver milk that nourishes infant
147
what do LH and FSH cause the release of
-estrogen, progesterone and testosterone
148
Describe the menstrual cycle (how many eggs are we born with, how many die each month, and what happens if there is a fetus and when there isn't)
-females are born with about 2 million oocytes at puberty an about 250,000 remain
-you typically releases 1-2 oocytes/month after puberty/ before menopause (1-2% of ovulations, >oocytes)
-reproduction life is ~40 years (11-51) so <500 oocytes used (but ~1000 die each month)
-the oocyte fertilization is unknown so females reproductive system must go through cyclic changes preparing for possibility
-if there is fertilization, the system adapts to support developing fetus
-if there is no fertilization, you start preparation processes all over again
149
define the menstrual cycle and what phases are linked to the monthly cycle
-the ovaries and uterus go through pattern of change
-begins at puberty, lasts ~ 28 days, regulated by hormones
-range from 20-40 days but the average is 28 days
-the complete menstrual cycle consists of two linked monthly cycles: the ovarian and the uterine cycle
150
How many phases are in the ovarian cycle
-the follicular phase
-the ovulation phase
-the luteal phase
151
Describe the follicular phase
-this is from the first day -day 13
-GnRh (from the hypothalamus) stimulates anterior pituitary to produce follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)
-FSH stimulates several follicles within ovaries to mature
-primary oocyte enclosed in nourishing granulosa cells (stratified epithelium) these proliferate around the follicles
-granulosa cells divide and produce glycoproteins that become Zona pellucida (sperm must penetrate to enter the egg)
-the zona pellucida is the protective layer and the follicular phase is the estrogen dominant phase
-inside the follicle a fluid filled space (antrum) develops and granulosa cells secrete estrogen and progesterone
-only one primary oocyte completes meiosis I and forms secondary oocyte and polar body
-while maturation of follicle is occurring FSH also signals ovaries to produce high levels of estrogen
152
Describe the Ovulation phase
-this is for day 14
-the progesterone is dominant phase
-high estrogen stimulates spike in LH release
-LH surge stimulates release of secondary oocyte into extracellular fluid (ovulation)
-secondary oocyte swept into the fallopian tube
-oocyte may encounter sperm capable of fertilizing the egg
-if fertilization occurs oocyte completes meiosis II and becomes a mature egg or ovum
-this is the second phase of the ovarian cycle
153
Describe the Luteal Phase
-this is the last phase is the ovarian cycle
- day 15- day 28
-remnant of ruptured follicle from the corpus luteum which secretes estrogen and progesterone preparing uterus for implantation
-if fertilization occurs the corpus luteum secretes hormones for about 9-10 weeks until the placenta secretes enough progesterone and estrogen to continue pregnancy
-if fertilization does not occur the corpus luteum degenerates after about 14 days and no longer secretes hormones
-this is the only one that takes exactly 14 days, bc that is how long the corpus luteum lasts after ovulation
-in this phase there is no estrogen or progesterone
154
Describer the Uterine Cycle (structural and functional changes)
-structureal and funcational changes in the uterus preparing for the pssoibility of fertilized oocyte
this also has 3 phases
155
what are the 3 phases of the uterine cycle
1. menstraual phase
2. proliferative phase
3. secretory phase
156
Describe the Menstrual phase
-this is the first phase of the uterine cycle
-happen from day 1-5
-because the corpus luteum has died estrogen and progesterone levels are low in the absence of pregnancy
-since there is nothing to stimulate the endometrium to continue to grow and it sloughs off
the endometrial lining sheds through the vagina resulting in the menstrual period
157
describe the Proliferative phase and what does the cervix secrete `
-days 6- 14
-second phase of the uterine cycle
-developing follicle produces estrogen stimulating endometrial lining to proliferate (grow)
-cervix produces thin mucus assisting sperm moving from the vagina into the uterus
158
what is important to remember when talking about the uterine cycle and the ovulation cycle
they both line up and happen at the same time
159
describe the Secretory phase (don't forget the secretions)
-3rd and final phase of the uterine cycle
-happens at day 15-28
-this happens at the same time as the luteal phase
-the endometrium is now 3x thicker than post menstruation
-cervix secretes thick mucus blocking sperm and bacteria from the vagina to the uterus
-the uterine glands produce/ secrete glycogen as a energy source from embryo
160
What kind of feedback can be seen in the menstrual cycle
-both negative and positive feedback occurs
161
Describe the Menstrual Cycle as a whole
-the uterine and ovarian cycles are linked
-uterine wall contains inner layer called endometrium and outer layer is called myometrium
-endometrium consists of epithelial tissue, connective tissue and blood vessels
-when oocyte is fertilized, it attaches and embed in endometrium= implantation
162
How do you find what day you ovulated
you find out how many days are in your cycle and then you subtract by 14 (which is how long the luteal phase lasts)
163
how long is the follicular phase in a 24 day cycle
-5 days
164
how long does the follicular phase last in a 28 day cycle
-10 days
165
how long does the follicular phase last in a 32 day cycle
-13 days
166
What are the Testes
-these are the gonads
-they produce sperm and they secrete testosterone
167
what is the scrotum
-houses testes
168
What is the Epidiymis
-where sperm matures
169
what is the ductus vas deferens
-the sperm continues to mature and is stored here until ejaculation
-brings sperm to urethra
170
what is the Ejaculatory duct (dont forget seminal vesicles)
-transports sperm and secretions from seminal vesicles towards the penis
-this is how we get semen
171
what is the Penis
-delivers the sperm to the female vagina
172
what do the accessory glands of male reproduction produce
-produce fluids, mucus and sugars that assist sperm in surviving journey into female reproductive tract
-these make semen
173
why happens to the corpus cavernosum and the corpus spongiosum
-the 2 lays of the corpus cavernosum fill with blood during an erection (it feels hard)
-the corpus spongiosum stays soft because you want to leave the urethra open
174
where is sperm produced
-in the seminiferous tubules of testes
175
Describe the Leydig cells
-these are between the seminiferous tubules
-they secrete male sex hormones (including testosterone)
-this process is controlled by LH
176
what is Spermatogenesis stimulated by
-testosterone
177
Describe Sertoli Cells
-these surround the spermatogenic cells
-assist sperm production by providing nourishment
-controlled/ activated by FSH
178
What does male reproductive capacity depend on
-testosterone
179
what does testosterone control
-controls the growth and function of male reproductive tissues
-stimulates sexual behavior and causes the development of secondary sex characteristics (this is when the pubic hair grows and the scrotum growing)
180
what is testosterone production and secretion regulated by
-GnRH, LH, FSH
181
Describe the pathway of sperm
-sperm travels from the seminiferous tubules to the epididymis (surrounds the testis)
-sperm spends about 20 days maturing in epididymis acquiring ability to swim and to fertilize eggs
-sperm can be stored in the epididymis for several months before being phagocytosed
-sperm leaves the epididymis and enter vas deferens and then ejaculatory duct
-when orgasm is reached, sperm are propelled through the ejaculatory duct to urethra passing through the penis
-remember that the vas deferens turns into the ejaculatory duct
182
what happens to the prostate with age
-it gets bigger and it narrows the urethra, causing older men to have to go to the bathroom more frequently
183
what is semen
-formed from the sperm plus accessory gland secretions
184
what do the seminal vesicles add to the sperm
-add fructose, prostaglandins, and motility enhancers
185
what does the prostate secrete (motility and liquifiy)
--secretes fluid enhancing sperm motility and enzymes that liquefy ejaculated semen
186
what do Bulbourethral glands secrete (hint acidity)
-these secrete mucus that help neutralize acidity of vagina and lubricates vagina
187
Describe Fertilization(fertilization window, what quality does the sperm have, how long do they survive)
the fertilization window is about 3 days before and 3 days after the oocyte has been ovulated
-sperm must be capacitated (have the ability to penetrated oocyte) and reach oocyte
-only a few thousand reach the tube
live about 3-5 days (in the female reproductive tract but they may survive up to a week (takes 4-24 hours to reach the oocyte)
-if the oocyte does not encounter sperm in the fallopian tube within 1-2- days, it dies
188
how long can sperm live inside the female body
about 5 days
189
how many sperm fertilize oocytes and why
-only 1 sperm fertilizes the oocyte to ensure that the resulting embryo has only one full set of chromosomes (46 in humans)
190
what does the sperm do when it reaches the egg (zona pelluicida)
-hundred of sperm release enzymes from the acrosome that digest the zona pellucida (the protective zone around the oocyte, this is called the acrosomal reaction
-this acrosomal reaction comes from the tip of of the sperm
191
what happens to the first sperm that reches the egg
-binds to the sperm receptors and egg and sperm membranes fuse
-this is cortical reaction
192
what happens after sperm enters the egg
-it releases enzymes that break down remaining sperm receptors blocking other sperm from entering
193
what does the entry of sperm into the oocyte signal
-signals the egg to complete meiosis II
194
what happens to the follicular cells around the secondary oocyte
-they are lost and polar bodies degenerate
195
what is the end goal of fertilization
-conception and the single diploid cell in called zygote
196
What does mitosis result in
the same DNA
197
what does meiosis result in
genetic variability
198
why do twins arise
-when either a single fertilized eggs splits resulting in identical twins
-when two eggs ovulated int he same cycles are fertilized by different sperm resulting in fraternal twins
199
what are fraternal twins
-not genetical identical and may be different sex
200
what are identical twins
-genetically identical and the same sex
-come from the same zygote
201
what needs to happen for identical twins to develop properly
-zygote must divide before differentiation of cells has begun
-when the zygote separates incompletely embryos become conjoined twins
-conjoined twins can only be separated only if they do not share vital organs
202
Why is LDL considered bad cholesterol
-when there is too much LDL it circulates in the blood it can slowly build up in the inner walls of the arteries that feed the heart and brain
-can lead to plaque formation and atherosclerosis
-is a clot form and blocks a narrowed artery
-heart attack and stroke can result
203
why is HDL considered the good cholesterol
-only about 1/4-1/3 of blood cholesterol is carried by HDL
-high levels of HDL seem to protect against heart attack and low levels of HDL (less than 40 mg/dL) increase the risk of heart disease
-HDL tends to carry cholesterol away from arteries and back to the liver, where it passed from the body
204
Menstrual Cycle Hormones and where are the produced
-GnRH (from the hypothalamus)
-LH and FSH (anterior pituitary
-Estrogen and progesterone (within the ovary)
