Reading Disorders Flashcards
components of reading
Decoding: fluent and accurate word reading; lack of practice / exposure to text affects automaticity / speed of word recognition; poor decoding slows down the reading process and takes effort away from understanding the text; fluent decoding is essential for reading comprehension
Reading comprehension: understanding of text is the ultimate goal of reading; decoding alone does not lead to comprehension; comprehension also dependent on vocabulary, complex thought processes – making inferences, motivation and practice
The majority of children with reading difficulties have not achieved fluent decoding; however, some children will have poor comprehension despite being fluent decoders
normal reading development
Various stage models of reading development; most commonly cited is Frith’s (1985):
Logographic stage (pre-alphabetic): identifies a few words based on salient characteristics; recognise and process words as wholes, rather than identifying letters; e.g. McDonalds / PEPSI – could change letters in these but they would still be recognised; own name.
Alphabetic stage: learn about relationship between letters and sounds; aware of identity of letters and their order; dig = /d/ /i/ /g/
Orthographic stage: show rapid recognition of words; words treated as units; use letter-sound rules only for unfamiliar words
BUT criticisms of stage theories:
Rigid frameworks, assume children pass through one stage to the next
Ignore the fact that the way a child is taught to read will affect their literacy development
regular v irregular orthographies
Regular orthographies (e.g. Spanish) each letter always represents the same sound In irregular orthographies (e.g. English) the same letter can represent different sounds (e.g. mint, print – pint) and the same sound can be represented by different letters (e.g. day, play, sleigh, neighbour) To learn to read and write the child needs a good understanding of phonemes (sounds) and graphemes (printed letters) and phoneme-grapheme relationships (phonics) The difficulty of learning to read and write is proportional to the irregularity of the orthography, e.g. Oney & Goldman (1984) compared children learning to read English (opaque) and Turkish (transparent); learning to read a transparent language is easier
DSM 5 for reading disorders
A). A persistent difficulty in learning academic skills for at least 6 months despite intervention targeting the area(s) of difficulty. Many schools use a RTI model of academic skill assessment and progress monitoring to determine the effectiveness of interventions. The areas of documented academic skill difficulties include:
Word decoding and word reading fluency
Reading comprehension
Spelling
Writing difficulties such as grammar, punctuation, organization and clarity
Number sense, fact and calculation
Mathematical reasoning
B.The affected academic skills are substantially below expectations giventhe individual’s age and result in impaired functioning in school, at work and in activities of daily living.
C.Learning Disability is readily apparent in the early years, however it is not to be diagnosed until the onset of school years; in some individuals the disorder is not apparent until the onset of a demand for higher-level skills.
D.The academic and learning difficulties occur in the absence of:
Intellectual Disabilities
Visual or hearing impairments
Mental disorders (e.g. depression, anxiety, etc.)
Neurological disorders
Psycho-social difficulty
Language differences
Lack of access to adequate instruction
ICD for reading disorders
Specific Reading Disorder comes under the category of Specific developmental disorders of scholastic skills
The main feature is a specific and significant impairment in the development of reading skills that is not solely accounted for by mental age, visual acuity problems, or inadequate schooling. Reading comprehension skill, reading word recognition, oral reading skill, and performance of tasks requiring reading may all be affected. Spelling difficulties are frequently associated with specific reading disorder and often remain into adolescence even after some progress in reading has been made. Specific developmental disorders of reading are commonly preceded by a history of disorders in speech or language development. Associated emotional and behavioural disturbances are common during the school age period.
assessment of dyslexia
IQ:
WISC-V: 6-16; FSIQ; deficit on WMI, PSI
BAS-III: 3-17; GCA; deficits on recall tests, reading, spelling
Memory:
WISC-V: 6-16; Working Memory Index
BAS-III: 3-17; recall of objects, digits forwards, digits backwards
CMS: 5-16; attention and working memory, verbal and visual, short- and long-delay, recall and recognition
WMTB-C: 5-15; central executive, phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad
Phonological awareness / phonic skills:
PhAB: 6-14; alliteration, naming speed, rhyme, spoonerisms, fluency, non-word reading
CTOPP-2: 4-24; phonological awareness, phonological memory, rapid naming
Reading:
NARA-II: 6-12; reading accuracy, comprehension and rate
WRAT-4: 5-94; word reading
WIAT-II: 4-85; single word reading, reading comprehension, reading speed / rate
BAS-III: 5-17; word reading
Spelling: WRAT-4: 5-94; spelling WIAT-II: 4-85; single word spelling BAS-III: 5-17; spelling SWST: 6-14; paper and digital formats
types of reading disorders
Both diagnostic systems (DSM / ICD) do not differentiate between different types of reading difficulty
Most reading difficulties are related to difficulties in fluent decoding (sometimes termed ‘dyslexia’)
Some children have difficulties in reading comprehension, despite fluent and accurate decoding
pre-school indicators of dyslexia
Delay or difficulty in development of clear speech and a tendency to jumble words
Difficulty with dressing efficiently, tying shoe laces, and putting clothes on in the right order
Poor concentration such as when stories are read to them
Ambidextrous or left-handedness
Inability to associate sounds with words and appreciate rhyme
Family history of similar difficulties
what is dyslexia and symptoms
Other commonly used terms: reading difficulty, reading disorder, specific learning difficulty (dyslexia)
‘Dyslexia is a learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling’ (Rose Report, 2009)
Characteristic features: difficulties in phonological awareness, auditory memory and verbal processing speed.
Dyslexia occurs across the range of intellectual abilities
It is best thought of as a continuum, not a distinct category, and there are no clear cut-off points
Co-occurring difficulties may be seen in aspects of language, motor co-ordination, mental calculation, concentration and personal organisation
Symps (vary):
Early speech problems
Poor phonological awareness
Difficulty with phonic skills
Slow and inaccurate reading
Poor spelling
Disorganised writing
Memory problems
Organisational difficulties
indicators of dyslexia age 5-7
Inability to learn the alphabet or the sounds represented by the letters
Inability to read except for a very few simple words
Inability to put sounds together to make words
Inability to use a pencil to write properly
Inability to remember sequences
Difficulty telling right from left
Continued difficulty with co-ordinated activities
Inattention and poor concentration
indicators of dyslexia age 7-11
Poor progress in academic subjects compared with classmates
Low frustration, often leading to behavioural problems or becoming withdrawn and quiet
Inability to follow a number of instructions or remember more than one thing at a time
Inattention and poor concentration
indicators of dyslexia age 11-16
Difficulty in organizing work
Problems copying and with dictation
Difficulty writing down oral instructions
Growing lack of self-confidence and increasing frustration
Difficulty in studying for and coping with exams
Slowed by reading difficulties, most work takes very much longer than average
Continued problems with spelling, writing. Inconsistent in what they seem to know
Tendency to read inaccurately and without comprehension
Severe difficulty in learning foreign languages
dyslexia prevalence and associated outcomes
Affects up to 10% of the population, with up to 4% being severely affected
More boys than girls are affected: ratios vary from 2:1 to 10:1 (or even higher)
Comorbidity with language impairment, ADHD and DCD / dyspraxia, dyscalculia, dysgraphia
Persists into adulthood; several associated outcomes, with increased prevalence of:
unemployment
offending
mental health issues
aetiology of dyslexia
genetic factors
40% of boys and 18% of girls with a dyslexic parent has dyslexia (Pennington & Smith, 1988)
Colorado twin study of dyslexia: concordance rates of 68% for MZ and 38% for DZ twins (DeFries, Fulker & LaBuda, 1987)
Heritability appears to be higher among children with severe reading disorders (Bishop, 2001) and those children with high IQs (Olson et al., 1999)
Not one gene: combination of many genes; strongest evidence for chromosone 6 – particularly a gene on chromosome 6p (KIAA0319) (Cope et al., 2005)
env influences More common in children from poorer SES Literacy related activities in the home Mothers educational level Interest and motivation Reading exposure Schooling Reading instruction
theories of dyslexia
phon deficit theory:
Deficits in phonological awareness (e.g. Bradley & Bryant, 1978; Bruck, 1990)
Deficits in phonological processing:
Non-word repetition (e.g. Snowling, 1981)
RAN (e.g. Wolf & Bowers, 1995)
Phonological paired associate learning (e.g. Vellutino et al, 1995)
Early (pre-reading) phonological deficits show that this deficit is not a consequence of reading impairment: Scarborough, 1990; Pennington & Lefly, 2001; Snowling, Gallagher & Frith, 2003)
Most widely accepted theory of dyslexia
BUT phonological deficit not evident in all dyslexics
cerebellar theory:
Fawcett and Nicolson
Cerebellar dysfunction
Cerebellar contributes to:
Motor control during speech articulation (which contributes to phonological deficit)
Automatisation of learned behaviours (e.g. reading / motor tasks)
Based largely on association between dyslexia and balance / coordination difficulties
Less evidence / consensus regarding this theory; balance difficulties also found in other groups (ADHD / low intelligence)
double deficit hypothesis:
Wolf and Bowers
Reading difficulties caused by deficits in:
Phonological processing
Rapid automatised naming
Poor readers may have one or both deficits; most severely affected (dyslexics) likely to have deficits in both
Intervention depends on which deficit(s) the individual has
Some evidence but less well researched than the phonological deficit theory
magnocellular theory:
Stein
Impairment in visual magnocellular system: abnormal development of the LGN (lateral geniculate nucleus); reduced motion sensitivity; unsteady binocular fixation; poor visual localisation
These visual impairments cause letters to appear to move around on the page
Also attempts to explain auditory / phonological difficulties
Interventions: cover left eye; omega-3 fish oils; coloured overlays
Not as widely supported as the phonological deficit theory
