Reading Qs Flashcards
(185 cards)
1
Q
If parents and societies adopt the belief that parents don’t matter, how does this jeopardize
the well-being of children?
A
Parents and societies will be more likely to abdicate important
responsibilities that are essential to the healthy development of children.
2
Q
How does Hart restate the first erroneous view in order to more accurately represent what we
know about the effects of parenting on children’s development?
A
Married, heterosexual
parents do matter
3
Q
Research has documented that natural family structures benefit nearly every aspect of a
child’s well-being. List the six specific benefits research has documented.
A
These include: [1] greater educational opportunities;
[2] better emotional health;
[3] better physical health;
[4] less substance abuse,
[5] lower incidences of early sexual activity for girls;
and [6] less delinquency for boys.
4
Q
Married parents are in the best position to protect their children against ______, which is a
defining predictor of academic and social problems in children.
A
poverty
5
Q
How does Hart restate the second erroneous view in order to more accurately represent what
we know about the effects of parenting on children’s development?
A
Fathers and mothers do
make unique contributions to child development
6
Q
The single most important factor for diminishing delinquent behavior is _______.
A
The
presence of the father in the home.
7
Q
Fathers make unique contributions. For example, research indicates that fathers are more
____________ with their children than mothers and fathers who elicit positive emotion during
play help children __________ and _______ in ways that can result in more positive social
adjustment with peers.
A
physically playful; learn to read social cues; regulate their emotions
8
Q
Mothers also make unique contributions. For example, children who have more _______
mothers were able to engage in more _______ and ________ play with peers.
A
reasoningoriented; prosocial; cooperative
9
Q
How does Hart restate the third erroneous view in order to more accurately represent what
we know about the effects of parenting on children’s development?
A
Parenting does make a
difference in children’s behavior outside of the home.
10
Q
Parenting carries over in the way that children interact with their peers. For example,
research indicates that parents who are more ________ tend to have children who are more
_______ and _______ with their peers, while parents who are more _______ and _______
tend to have children who are more _______ and ______ with peers.
A
coercive; coercive;
aggressive; warm; responsive; cooperative; sociable
11
Q
How does Hart restate the fourth erroneous view in order to more accurately represent what
we know about the effects of parenting on children’s development?
A
Genetics, peers, and
particularly parents matter.
12
Q
Parents can influence their adolescent’s choice of friends. Research indicates that parents
who are _______, ________ and ________ tend to have adolescents who are more careful
in their selection of peers.
A
emotionally connected with their teens; set regulatory limits; foster
autonomy in teen decision making.
13
Q
Genetic influences are thought to produce some inborn predispositions. Name some of the
predispositions that research has uncovered.
A
aggression, shyness, sociability,
impulsiveness, higher or lower activity and emotionality levels, and religiosity.
14
Q
In what three ways does Hart suggest parents can exert a positive influence on their children?
A
[1] by teaching morals and values;
[2] by proactively helping children overcome
less desirable inborn characteristics; and
[3] by enhancing many positive inborn capabilities
by providing opportunities for further development.
15
Q
Berk states in the preface of the text that parenting advice has vacillated. What four
philosophies does she describe as presently being espoused in our contemporary society?
A
Parents are in control, so get tough; parents are powerful teachers, so train and instruct as
early as possible; children should have more power, so wait for children’s readiness cues;
and parents are powerless, in fact children’s genes and peers largely determine how they will
turn out
16
Q
Describe the current view of researchers on the nature v. nurture controversy.
A
It is a
balanced, inclusive view that acknowledges the influences of both nature and nurture. These
forces are considered to be interrelated and powerful.
17
Q
Whose theory does Berk use to serve as the framework of this book? How does this theory
help answer questions about promoting positive child development?
A
Lev Vygotsky and
sociocultural theory. He explains how social encounters with adults (or more expert peers)
lead development along. Children contribute their own dispositions, talents, and interests,
and adults can assist by tailoring their communications with the child to the development of
desirable competencies
18
Q
Berk points to something that she says is often mistakenly regarded as fleeting and
inconsequential, but which actually affects children profoundly. What is this?
A
Shared activities between adult and child.
19
Q
In the first chapter, Berk described the bewilderment of many of today’s parents. What are
the two reasons she gives for this confusion?
A
Rapid societal changes that have complicated
parents’ tasks, and information for parents that is voluminous but contradictory.
20
Q
What is Berk’s analysis of the “quality time” issue? What kind of time does she feel children
need from their parents?
A
(Children need positive, supportive parenting interchanges, but this
quality interaction must be long-term to be effective. Children need a lot of time and positive
exchanges with their parents. Parents need these opportunities to become familiar with their
children’s talents, shortcomings, preferences, styles of learning, and ways of coping with
hardship
21
Q
When considering decisions about balancing home and work, what does Berk suggest
mothers should consider in making their decisions?
A
Mothers must balance their
commitments in a way that allows them to maintain a priority on their effectiveness as
parents.
22
Q
What does Berk identify as the two extremes of the rhythmic pendulum of parenting beliefs?
A
An adult-imposed, directive approach and a child-centered, laissez-faire approach
23
Q
What impact did behaviorist procedures have on parents in the 1920s and 30s in terms of
their academic demands of children? Why and how did it backfire?
A
These parents mapped
out routines, created structure , and imposed drill and repetition in learning. It backfired
because this teaching was not adjusted to children’s interests and capabilities: they exhibited
high levels of stress and showed declines in self-confidence and motivation.
24
Q
Who are the three theorists that Berk assigns to the “child supremacy” theories?
A
Rousseau, Freud, and Piaget
25
What does Damon currently contend in terms of the effects of modern child-centeredness on
children?
(Child-centeredness has been stretched to the point of unrestrained child
gratification, thus children and youth are less engaged, less purposeful, less accomplished
academically, and more egoistical and antisocial.
26
Understanding the new, more complex view of child development is important. What is the
vital prerequisite for parents enacting this perspective, according to Berk?
Parents must
| arrange their lives to invest time and energy in young children.
27
What advice does Berk give for solving the “time bind”?
Turn off the TV; take time each day
to interact one-on-one; involve children in positive play, recreation, and daily tasks; have
predictable routines, consistently enforced rules, and sufficient oversight.
28
How does early experience join with biology to affect brain development in the early years?
Stimulation is vital in the survival of connections between neurons during the early years;
high plasticity allows children to develop functionality before brain regions have taken on
specific functions; appropriate levels of stimulation wire the brain.
29
How can parenting practices positively influence shy children’s temperaments?
Parents can warmly but consistently and assertively require new experiences and guide and support their
child in these efforts so that the child develops a more adaptive style.
30
How does Berk characterize and enumerate the various roles of parents and other adults
who apply good rearing practices?
(They become buffers, shields of protection, agents of
| change, gatekeepers, and conveyers of culture
31
What are the basic tenets of the socio-cultural theory?
All higher forms of thinking are deeply
affected by children’s social experiences, which means that children’s minds are socially
formed; language is an indispensable tool of the mind; children learn and practice thinking by
participating in purposeful activities and thereby learn culturally valued skills.
32
Quoting from the The Family: A Proclamation To the World, parents are given the sacred duty to
“rear their children in __________ and _____________, to provide for their _______ and
_________ needs, to teach them to _________ and _____________ one another, to
_____________ the commandments of God and to be _________ __________ wherever they
live.”
love; righteousness; physical; spiritual; love; serve; observe; law-abiding citizens
33
President Gordon B. Hinckley indicated that the good result from what effort is life’s most satisfying compensation?
parenting
34
What three words did he use to describe the atmosphere that should be present in a good home?
_______, __________________, and ______________________.
parenting; love; security; faith
35
The innately evil view of childhood led many to believe that ________ _______ was legitimized
and _____ _ _______ were thought to be harmful.
(child punishment; displays of affection) The
LDS perspective (circle one): accepts/rejects this view. (rejects) Why? What effect does this have
on the way we should treat children? (Little children are saved by Christ through His merciful
atonement. Therefore, children are not evil by nature. Parents who accept gospel teachings
recognize that it is not appropriate to attempt to “break the will” of their child, nor to resort to
severe physical punishment to teach and train them in the ways of righteousness.)
36
The blank slate view of childhood essentially posits that what a child becomes is simply a function
of his/her _______________. However, this view does not take into account the gospel teaching
that ultimately individuals have the __________ to choose their own _____________.
experiences; agency; destiny
37
While the innately good view of childhood might seem to be consistent with gospel viewpoints,
what important difference is there between this view and the LDS perspective?
In the gospel
view, parents are encouraged and admonished to actively teach their children rather than leaving
them to their own devices to develop according to an intuitive sense of right and wrong.
38
In the gospel view, children have the capacity for transgression, but are innocent and pure of any
sin or evil. They can succumb to sin when ________ or
__________.
they are given wrong direction or no direction; they willfully
choose evil over good after the age of accountability
39
At what age have researchers found that the necessary intellectual and reasoning capacities of
children enable them to make moral decisions?
around age 8
40
The truest description of children’s nature is as the children of ________.
light
41
How does believing this influence the way you will treat, guide, and view your children?
This
understanding that children are sons and daughters of God can inspire an important sense of
respect and reverence for the individual you are nurturing as a parent.
42
Besides the unique biological blueprint that parents give to their children (nature) and their unique
experiences and environments (nurture), what else can account for the differences between
children?
President Brigham Young encouraged
parents to “study their [children’s] ___________ and their ____________ and to deal with them
accordingly."
spiritual predispositions, talents, and desires.
| dispositions; temperaments
43
In fitting nature with nurture, it is clear that children by their very natures can require different
_________ _________ for different siblings in the same family and that siblings may respond to the same parenting styles in different ways according to how experiences are filtered through their _______. Also, ____________ family influences are as important, or even more important, than genes in creating likenesses between brothers and sisters.
(parenting behaviors), (perceptions), (shared)
44
In reference to children’s spiritual capacities, what is the parents’ role as they discover their
children’s strengths and weaknesses?
(Parents can be supportive by helping children overcome
| their weaknesses and build on their strengths.)
45
What scripture does President Gordon B. Hinckley recommend to every parent?
Parental righteous dominion emphasizes which characteristics?
(D&C 121:41–43)
| (charity, gentleness, kindness, long-suffering, persuasion)
46
What are the seven things parents can provide for their children in order to promote optimal
development?
[1] love, warmth, and support;
[2] clear and reasonable expectations for competent behavior;
[3] limits and boundaries with some room for negotiation and compromise;
[4] reasoning and developmentally appropriate consequences and punishments for breaching
established limits;
[5] opportunities to perform competently;
[6] absence of coercive, hostile forms
of discipline, such as harsh physical punishment;
[7] models of appropriate behavior that are consistent with self-control, positive values, and positive attitudes.
47
Provide a brief description of the coercive parenting style and its effects on children.
Coercive parents hold power over children through derogatory, punitive, or psychologically controlling
means. This parenting style is associated with externalizing behaviors, such as aggression,
disruptive behavior, and delinquency, and with internalizing emotions, such as anxiety and
depression.
48
What have modern prophets counseled about the use of physical punishment based on the
biblical warning that sparing the rod will spoil the child?
Modern prophets counsel that children
need love and encouragement rather than beatings. The concept of the rod can be seen in light
of other scriptures that demonstrate its use as a tool to guide, protect, and comfort the sheep.)
49
Provide a brief description of the permissive parenting style and its effects on children.
Permissive parents indulge their children. This style keeps restrictions, demands for mature
behavior, and consequences for misbehavior at a minimum. Research suggests that while
children reared permissively may be quite social and have a low rate of internalizing problems,
they also tend to do less well academically, are more defiant of authority, and have a higher rate
of adolescent sexual activity and substance abuse
50
Parenting that fosters a positive _____________ ____________ with children and provides for
____________ that places ______ and _________ limits on child behavior and allows for
reasonable child ___________ in __________ _______ is typically referred to as authoritative
parenting.
(emotional connection; regulation; fair; consistent; autonomy; decision making)
51
In general, what positive effects does authoritative parenting have on development?
```
Children and adolescents from authoritative homes are or tend to be:
[1] better adjusted in school;
[2] less aggressive and delinquent,
[3] less likely to use drugs,
[4] more friendly and accepted by peers,
[4] more communicative,
[5] more self-motivated,
[6] more academically inclined,
[7] more willing to abide by rules and laws,
[8] more capable of moral reasoning and
[9] more self-controlled.)
```
52
Compare and contrast the way a parent using the coercive style might attempt to correct a child’s
misbehavior with the way that a parent using the authoritative style might.
Coercive parents are likely to administer harsh and arbitrary punishments. They attempt to control or dominate and often vent anger during punishment. Authoritative parents realize that a child’s mistake gives
them an opportunity to teach. They insure that reasonable limits are clear, they take time to correct the behavior, help children feel loved, and they use positive reinforcement to encourage good behavior.
53
List five ideas from the section on regulation that will be particularly helpful to you as you work
with children.
Responses could include some of the following: setting appropriate rules, providing warnings, finding alternatives to physical punishment, and keeping a positive tone in the home.
54
Describe parental communication in an authoritative home. Tell how this style of upbringing
assists children in developing autonomy and decision-making skills.
Parental communication in
authoritative homes is nonjudgmental and open. Since there is a degree of power-sharing in
these relationships, children have an opportunity to think, choose, consult, and learn from their
parents, helping them develop an ability to wisely use their autonomy and hone their decision making skills.
55
How are LDS authoritative parents likely to find answers to ways they can provide an individualized parenting approach appropriate for each of their children?
by humbly seeking the guidance of the Holy Ghost
56
How likely will a parent be at “100 percent peak operating efficiency” all of the time? What can
they do to improve?
Parenting is a sanctifying process. Parents get fatigued, stressed, and deal with a variety of circumstances and difficult behaviors that can strain their abilities to act
authoritatively in each situation. However, parents can try to be unified and consistent, apologize when they make mistakes, and seek the Lord’s help in overcoming personal weaknesses
57
What is most likely to make a child more loveable?
(the pure love of the parent expressed often to
| the child
58
What principles of the Proclamation can encourage a wandering child to come back to his family?
faith, prayer, repentance, forgiveness, respect, love, and compassion
59
In light of existing evidence regarding the influence of parenting skill and children’s biological
dispositions, what three distinct perspectives have emerged?
([1] Parents are not essential to
children’s development; [2] An average expectable environment provided by parents is all that is
needed; [3] Optimal, rather than “good enough,” parenting is essential for children’s optimal
development
60
What role does a climate of parent-child interaction play?
(This climate likely moderates how
receptive children are to certain parenting practices, such as reasoning or limit setting, when
enacted in specific child-rearing contexts.
61
The dimensional approach to parenting styles, which explores socialization influences, is useful in
desegregating distinctive modes of socialization in order to determine their links to child
development outcomes. What do these include?
(These include, but are not limited to,
contrasting dimensions of: [a] power-assertive v. inductive; [b] position-centered v. personcentered; [c] parent-centered v. child-centered; [d] punishment-oriented v. reason-oriented; and
[e] harsh/restrictive v. positive/nonrestrictive.)
62
What are three features of parenting that include many of the positive dimensions noted in this
section that have been consistently used in describing competent parenting?
(The three features
are: [1] degree of parental support shown to a child [e.g., acceptance, affection, involvement,
nurturance]; [2] the degree of behavioral control placed on a child [e.g., limit setting, supervision,
reasoning about and following through with consequences]; and [3] the degree to which parents
facilitate the development of psychological/emotional autonomy in children [e.g., choice giving,
allowing child input into rule making, permitting the expression of ideas, avoiding intrusive
behavior.)
63
What can the flexible use of authoritative-style features provide for children?
It can provide the best fit for children with varying temperamental dispositions.)
64
What outcomes have been linked to secure attachments with parents?
Secure attachments have
been linked with “working models” that provide the child with expectations of positive reciprocal
interpersonal outcomes from interactions with others; better emotion regulation; and selfconfidence in interacting with unfamiliar peers.
65
What outcomes have been associated with mutually enjoyable interactions?
Outcomes include
advances in initiating play ideas, attending to a play partner’s desires and needs, and responding
to a partner’s initiations in peer-group interaction.)
66
How have parent/child relationships been conceptualized from a regulation standpoint?
Regulation is considered to be vertical and asymmetrical with the focus on parents instructing,
correcting, teaching, or disciplining their children
67
What is the function of authoritative regulation? How is this typically done?
The function is to
persuade children to adopt parental views on certain issues and to regulate their behavior
accordingly. This is typically done by setting limits, reasoning about rules and the consequences
of misbehavior, reinforcing positive behavior, and following through with a judicious use of
punishment as needed.
68
How are authoritative parents likely to handle a situation where limits that they have explained in
advance are violated?
Authoritative parents are more likely to be firm and consistent when following through in non-punitive ways with logical consequences that are tied to the misdeeds.
Opportunities are then given for children to practice trying again, armed with new information about the why’s and how’s of enacting good behavior.
69
The authors mentioned three factors that affect how children resonate to reasoning-oriented
parental input. What are they?
These three factors are the age of the child, how “connected” their relationship is with the parent, and their ability to understand.
70
How do children learn to become better self-regulators?
by developing decision-making skills
| and learning how to make personal decisions within limits that are acceptable to parents.
71
What is the function of supporting children’s autonomy?
to help children view adults as providers
| of information and guidance rather than as delivers of messages of control
72
Authoritative parenting that includes balanced features of autonomy granting, along with
regulation through limit setting, follow-through, and reasoning, as well as connection that is
reflected in mutually responsive and satisfying relationships, likely sets the stage for what skills to
develop?
social and communication skills.
73
The degree to which these skills flourish are likely constrained or enhanced by what?
biological and genetic factors that are inherent in each child.
74
What is the function of coercion and how is it likely to be administered?
to force children to adopt parental views on certain issues and to regulate their behavior accordingly; it is more likely to be administered in a harsh, arbitrary manner.
75
Although coercion may often result in immediate compliance in children, it comes with a cost.
What is the cost?
(It is suggested that it comes with a cost to children’s abilities to learn how to
regulate their own behavior from within.
76
What are some of the manifestations of coercive stylistic interactions as mentioned by the
authors?
(Persistent parenting that derides, demeans, or diminishes children by continually
putting them in their place, putting them down, mocking them, or holding power over them via
physical, verbal, or psychologically controlling means are the manifestations mentioned.)
77
What does research exploring the outcomes of these coercive features indicate?
Research indicates that such parenting appears to impede social and communication competencies in
children and may be systemically maintained through mutually coercive parent-child exchanges that are driven by aggressive behavior by both child and parent.
78
Give some examples of psychologically controlling parental behavior.
These include communicating disinterest in what a child is saying, invalidating or discounting a child’s feelings,
attacking a child in a condescending or patronizing way, or using guilt induction, love withdrawal, or erratic emotional behavior as means of control and manipulation.
79
What are some of the characteristics of permissive parenting as mentioned in this chapter?
(Permissive parents keep restrictions at a minimum, have lower expectations for mature behavior,
and impose fewer consequences for misbehavior.)
80
What did we mention as potential outcomes associated with permissive parenting?
(Outcomes may include greater difficulty in respecting others, coping with frustration, delaying gratification for
a greater goal, and following through with their plans. These children are more sociable and tend to have relatively low rates of internalizing problems [e.g., depression, anxiety]. However, they do less well academically, are more defiant of authority figures, and exhibit a higher rate of externalizing behavior.
81
Define parenting practices and give an example.
(Practices refer to particular efforts that parents
undertake to accomplish specific goal-oriented tasks with children. Some examples: engaging in
a mutually enjoyable activity to foster connection, reasoning about consequences to ward off
misbehavior, spanking to punish for misdeeds, or providing choices to foster decision making
skills
82
Parents adjust their parenting practices according to what?
perceived social skill strengths and deficits they observe in their children.
83
Proficiently consulting with children entails considerable ____ and ____, and can be designed to
______ ______to face _____ ______ ______or can provide a _____ _____ for children’s ___-
____ ______.
(creativity; skill; prepare children; future social dilemmas; sounding board; self generated solutions.)
84
According to Porter et al., traditionally “easy” child characteristics tend to be linked with what kind
of parenting?
warm and responsive parenting
85
What kind of parenting is linked with “difficult” child characteristics?
less responsive and overall
| poorer parenting
86
What happens when a child’s temperament is incongruous with cultural demands and values?
Thomas and Chess [1977] predict that a “poor-fit” will emerge between the demands and
expectations made by parents and the child. In the case of a poor-fit, parents may engage in
more assertive forms of socialization to bring the child’s behavior in line with cultural and parental
expectations.
87
What can happen when a child’s temperament characteristics do not conform to cultural
expectations?
Parents and society may place added pressures on children to act within culturally
dictated norms
88
How has temperament been defined in this article?
Biologically rooted differences in behavioral
tendencies that are “relatively stable across various kinds of situations and over the course of
time.”
89
In one of the first studies to examine temperament dimensions among Chinese children, how did
the Chinese parents rate their infants compared to a sample of infants from the U.S.?
Chinese
parents rated their infants as less active, less approachable, less adaptable, and more negative in
mood than U.S. infants.
90
In an additional study that examined 6- and 7-year-old children from China and the U.S., how
were the older children perceived to be?
Ahadi et al. found that Chinese children were perceived
| to be less active, approachable and shier than their U.S. counterparts.
91
What five factors were included by Chinese parents as descriptors of their children’s
characteristics?
They included: [1] intellect [i.e., strong language ability, able to think fast,];, [2]
sociability [i.e., ease of making friends,]; [3] manageability/emotionality [i.e., prone to throw
temper tantrums, talk back to parents]; [4] activity [i.e., moves around a lot, likes practicing martial
arts]; and [5] anxiety/shyness [i.e., fear of mice, or small bugs; shy when first visiting others].
92
Why is intellect an important construct for Chinese parents to include?
Its inclusion likely reflects the high value Chinese parents place on their children’s academic performance as opposed to cultural-specific temperament feature
93
While commonalities in overarching temperament dimensions appear to exist across cultures,
what subtle differences might there likely be?
There are likely differences in the social value
placed on these various temperament traits. In turn, differing social value may result in
differential socialization strategies designed to help children conform to cultural expectations.
94
In interpreting the direction of effects of socialization, what did Bell (1968) mean by particular
parenting behaviors resulting from both cultural pressures and stimulation from the object of
acculturation?
Bell meant, in other words, that knowledge of children’s characteristics, cultural demands, and the parent’s own assimilation of these demands into a set of parenting and child expectations coalesce to influence differing socialization practices and child outcomes.
95
Chinese parent socialization patterns over the first several years of life are congruent with a
unique set of cultural expectations for child development. During the first few years of a child’s
life, how do Chinese parents discipline their children and why?
(Ho [1986] indicates that this early
childhood period is considered by parents to be an "age of innocence," when children are thought
to be incapable of understanding parents’ teaching and reasoning [bu dong shi]. As a result,
parents engage in more nurturing, lenient, or even indulgent practices during these early years.)
96
Why do Chinese parents shift in socialization practices when their children begin their formal
schooling and what do they shift to?
In sharp contrast to the early years of life, when Chinese
children begin their formal schooling, they are considered by parents to be at an "age of
understanding" [dong shi]. In efforts to foster conformity to rules, emotional maturity, self control,
and harmonious relationships with others, Chinese parents begin to use active forms of discipline
that may include harsh scolding and physical punishment
97
What have cross-cultural comparisons of parenting styles or typologies between Chinese and
Western parents revealed?
Chinese parents tend to be more authoritarian and less authoritative
than their Western counterparts. In addition, Western mothers have typically been found to be
more authoritative and less authoritarian than fathers.
98
According to past research, which two harsh disciplinary dimensions are Chinese parents more
likely to use than U.S. parents?
Past research has consistently indicated that Chinese parents
are more likely than U.S. parents to use physical coercion and verbal hostility in parent-child
interactions.
99
In which respects do the authors’ findings run contrary to Western parenting-temperament
literature?
These findings run contrary to a pattern of gender differences identified in the Western
parenting-temperament literature, namely that of more positive responses by parents to boy’s
behavioral difficulties and lower acceptance of this temperament in girls, especially on the part of
their fathers. However, the make-up of the emotionality construct in this study—children who cry
easily, often fuss, and get upset easily—likely represents children who make taxing demands on
both mothers and fathers in these various cultural settings. Such behaviors typically require
immediate attention and parenting activity to alleviate the stress commonly produced by these
behaviors in families
100
What do the authors of this article indicate as a possible reason for the emotionality construct being positively linked to authoritarian and negatively linked to authoritative parenting in both cultures?
The fact that the emotionality construct was positively linked to authoritarian and negatively linked to authoritative parenting in both cultures is possibly indicative of a universal disfavor parents have for negative features of children’s characteristics. While speculative, these findings may also reflect the cumulative effect of authoritarian parenting transactions with respect to children’s negative emotionality over an extended period of time.
101
What was the surprising finding resulting from the analysis of parents’ perceptions of their children’s activity level? Which culture was it especially surprising for and why?
A somewhat surprising finding was that parents’ perceptions of their children’s activity levels were positively related to spousal reports of authoritative parenting and negatively related to authoritarian
parenting in each culture. This finding was especially surprising within the Chinese culture, where
it was believed high activity level would be met with more restrictive and harsh parenting given
the cultural expectations for modest and reserved children.
102
What conclusions do the authors draw from their research?
The authors conclude that their findings support the idea that there are important differences and similarities in parent and temperament linkages in both North American and Chinese cultures. Some of the differences
likely reflect differing norms, values, and expectations unique to each culture. However, given the broad distribution of characteristics across each culture and differing cultural norms it would not be surprising to see, as Ahadi and colleagues have argued, that some children by their very “nature … have a relatively easy time conforming to expected norms, while others more strongly feel the pressure of society to behave in ways that do not come naturally.”(p. 374). In the end, both individuals and socializing agents likely strive for some form of balance to meet the needs of society while balancing personal needs inherent in individual temperamental characteristics.
103
Why are genetic predispositions for risk or ability factors by no means deterministic?
Because
there are likely multiple genes associated with risk (e.g., internalizing, externalizing) or ability
(e.g., sociability), accompanied by multiple environmental risk or ability enhancers.
104
Why can social/communicative skills vary considerably among individuals?
Because individuals can be distributed across a continuum of multiple genetic and environmental probabilities for risks or abilities.
105
What information may we continue to lack despite the discovery of more genetic markers?
Even as more genetic markers are discovered, critics argue that this knowledge still may not tell us
exactly how or why some individuals choose to override certain biological tendencies while others do not. Moreover, gene systems that underlie specific behavioral dimensions may turn on or off at different points of development, making it even more challenging to assess the stability of biological predispositions across time.)
106
Although the identification of behavioral genetic markers in molecular genetics research is in its infancy, what have researchers been estimating for several decades?
Hereditary influences have been estimated indirectly in behavior genetic research.
107
What do studies using twins and adoption designs suggest?
That there may be significant genetic influence for externalizing problems, sociability, and inhibited or withdrawn behavior.
108
In considering physiological factors, what have researchers found?
A host of physiological factors have also been considered in the development of sociable, internalizing, and externalizing behavior.
109
What do temperament studies focus on?
Individual differences in behavioral style that can be
| observed beginning in early childhood.
110
What are the three broad classifications that best represent the behavioral styles?
Classifications include: reactivity/negative emotionality (e.g., irritability, anger, inflexibility, or distress to novelty and fear reactions); self regulation (e.g., emotional control, non-distractibility, persistence); and approach/inhibition (e.g., inclination to approach novel situations and people,
or to be wary and withdrawn)
111
What do the temperament findings indicate?
Broadly speaking, concurrent and longitudinal
findings indicate that higher levels of inhibition and fearfulness are associated with more
withdrawal from peers. Conversely, less inhibition has been linked to more sociability with peers.
High negative emotionality (as in irritability or inflexibility) and low self-regulation is associated
with more externalizing behavior, while low negative emotionality and higher levels of selfregulation and approach are linked to more sociability with peers. More recent findings suggest
that negative emotionality, in the presence of optimum regulation, leads to better social
functioning, while high emotionality accompanied by low regulation is a risk for externalizing
behavior problems. Similarly, temperamentally outgoing children who lack emotional regulation
have been found to be more aggressive and disruptive with peers.
112
Why can genetic predispositions elicit different responses from environmental sources (e.g.,
parents, siblings, peers) in ways that result in different child outcomes?
Because children are not passive receptacles for environmental influences—they select, modify, and even create their environments.”
113
How do the rearing environments to which children are exposed correlate with their own genotypes?
A child with sociable tendencies may passively fit in with and even amplify more sociable behavioral patterns in family interaction exhibited by one or both parents with whom he or she shares most common genetic characteristics. Children may also actively seek out
experiences that provide a good fit@ with their temperamental predispositions.
114
Explain how different siblings in the same family, by their very natures, evoke different parenting behaviors?
When considering siblings, different children=s dispositions in the same family may
be more similar to the parent with whom he or she each passively shares the most biological
tendencies. Accordingly, different children in the same family may evoke unique responses from
one or both parents. Even children understand that parents adjust their styles to different needs
and personality characteristics of their siblings.
115
Define shared and non-shared effects.
Environmental sources that operate to make siblings
alike are referred to as shared effects. Environmental sources such as differential parental treatment that touches siblings in unique ways are referred to as non-shared effects.
116
In regards to both nature and nurture research, what does this suggest to parents?
This
suggests that parenting skills required to optimize social/communicative development may vary
significantly from child to child in different ways. In addition, parenting behaviors can also
enhance or diminish children=s biological predispositions.
117
What does the Chinese concept of “training” denote?
Concern, care, and involvement, in the context of firm and controlling parenting.
118
What are parenting practices designed to accomplish?
(Help parents to meet specific goals in
domain-specific areas such as helping children develop socially, achieve academically, or conform to societal expectations.
119
What are parenting styles?
Aggregates or constellations of behaviors that describe parent-child interactions over a wide range of situations and that are presumed to create a pervasive interactional climate.
120
What is typically reflected in parenting practices?
The social behaviors that are valued by a
| culture
121
Name the five Chinese cultural goal-directed behaviors (parenting practices).
Encouragement of modesty, protection, directiveness, shaming and love withdrawal, and maternal involvement.
122
In Chinese culture, how is modest behavior reflected?
(In moderate, humble, and socially
| conforming behavior when interacting with other people.
123
What does parental protection reflect in the Chinese cultural context?
The parental intention of ensuring a safe environment and fostering dependency on the parent, which is seen as a primary responsibility of parents of young children.)
124
In the Chinese culture, why do parents use shaming and love withdrawal?
To foster adherence
to societal norms and expectations and to promote sensitivity toward the perceptions and feelings
of others.
125
How do parents in China seem to act when specifically considering children’s academic activities
and behavioral conformance to parental expectations?
Parents seem to be more directive and
| controlling.
126
Historically, what are distinctly expected gender roles for Chinese mothers?
They are to be supportive, very involved, and physically close in mother-child relationships
127
How is high maternal involvement viewed?
As particularly important for providing a foundation
that helps young Chinese children succeed in academic pursuits and conform to societal norms
as they grow older
128
How does maternal involvement differ from parental protection?
(Maternal involvement denotes
more salient features of a highly involved, close mother-child relationship intended to help
Chinese children succeed academically, while parental protection is more focused on child safety
and the fostering of child dependence on parental governance.
129
What kind of parenting provides a good fit for children in the Chinese culture? Why?
Highly protective parenting—because it fosters dependency.
130
Although parental directiveness is prevalent in North American settings, what is normatively valued in China? Why?
Because there is less directiveness there; as a means of fostering selfcontrol and autonomous academic performance.
131
How is maternal involvement that is accompanied by high directiveness expected to help young Chinese children?
It is expected to help them succeed in intellectual pursuits.
132
Although not well studied in Western societies, what is likely to be somewhat encouraged in
individualistic cultures? Why?
Modest behavior, because cooperating with others and conforming to group norms is deemed important, and they value higher levels of individual expression.
133
What is a major contribution of this research?
That a model of parenting constructs derived empirically from indigenous Chinese cultural notion was found to be applicable for mothers in the U.S.
134
Although societal changes have taken place in mainland China over the past two decades, what
are current parenting beliefs and practices still likely to be influenced by?
Confucian traditions
135
How do American middle-class parents typically regard young children?
As dependent beings who must be urged toward independence.
136
What type of value system prevails in traditional classrooms?
An individualistic value system
137
What do diverse non-Western people and American ethnic minorities stress?
Interdependence—children must feel intimately linked to others to become competent and self-reliant.
138
What does Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory stress?
Children need social interaction and meaningful activities to develop, and he regarded high intrinsic motivation and mature, independent functioning as arising from the support granted by cultural experts as children
attempt ever more challenging tasks.
139
How can adults build interdependent relationships with children that foster the development of
culturally meaningful skills and mature, autonomous behavior?
The zone of proximal development.
140
According to Vygotsky, how should we view a child’s capacities?
We should view a child’s capacities by what he can do with expert assistance and his potential to learn.
141
Define the zone of proximal development.
The distance between the child’s actual development
| and the child’s potential development.
142
According to Vygotsky, what is a crucial aspect of parenting and the central aim of education?
To provide children with experiences in their “zone”—activities that can challenge them but that can
be accomplished with sensitive adult guidance.
143
Explain intersubjectivity, or shared understanding.
Each participant in the dialogue strives to grasp the subjective perspective of the other, an effort that results in a “meeting of minds” in which the partners’ thoughts make contact, connect, and coincide.
144
How is intersubjectivity a developmental process?
The younger the child, the greater the adult’s
responsibility for making mental contact and sustaining the interaction. Children of all ages actively join in, resulting in gains in thought, language, and social skills. Gradually, the child takes increasing responsibility for attaining intersubjectivity, until both parties make similar
contributions.
145
Describe the metaphor of a scaffold.
In scaffolding, the child is viewed as a building—actively
under construction. The adult provides a dynamic, flexible scaffold, or framework, that assists the
child in mastering new competencies. To promote development, the adult varies his or her
assistance to fit the child’s changing level of performance, with the goal of keeping the child in the
“zone.”
146
Creating a scaffold is usually done in which two ways?
[1] Adjusting the task so the demands on the child at any given moment are appropriately challenging, and
[2] tailoring the degree of adult intervention to the child’s current learning needs.
147
How does scaffolding nurture a self-regulated child?
[1] It provides children with strategies for
working toward goals, and [2] relinquishes adult control and assistance as soon as the child can
work independently.
148
To work well, what must the emotional tone of scaffolding be?
It must be warm, sympathetic, and responsive.
149
In child-rearing literature, many cultures mingle concern and affection with guidance and control
to attain which blend of parenting?
Authoritative
150
When people converse with one another, they engage in what form of dialogue?
Narrative
151
Describe a narrative.
It is a storylike mode of communicating, composed of a sequence of events with people as main characters. In the narrative, which may be real or imaginary, characters’
roles and mental states—feelings, intentions, beliefs, opinions, and knowledge—are revealed.
152
What are some features of narrative dialogue?
Events are arranged in logical, sequential order, focusing on explaining unusual, hard-to-interpret occurrences, often by dwelling on characters’ intentions and perspectives.
153
What does an early armament of narrative tools enable children to do?
Quickly and easily comprehend and contribute to the narratives of expert members of their culture.
154
What two other milestones lead infantile amnesia to give way to memory for personally gratifying
experiences?
[1] A psychological self, and [2] an autobiographical narrative.
155
Which two ways has observation of parent-child interaction revealed variation in how parents
engage children in narrative talk?
[1] An elaborative style, and
| [2] a repetitive style.
156
How is the child’s sense of self shaped?
in everyday social experiences—dialogues with parents,
| teachers, and other cultural experts within families, preschools, schools, and communities.
157
What is the most important lesson we can take from Miller’s provocative findings?
When parents and teachers take time to construct narratives with and about the young child, they create a zone that “spurs” children to weave moral and social rules into their self-definitions and to behave accordingly.
158
What does a mastery of false belief show?
That children regard beliefs as interpretations, not
| just reflections, of reality.
159
What are preschools and kindergartens inducing by emphasizing drill on academic skills?
Inattentiveness, restlessness, disengagement from challenging activities, and poorer achievement during the first few years of elementary school.
160
Explain dialogic reading.
The adult encourages the child to become a participant in the narrative, even a storyteller. Using books with pictures that convey a story line but that have limited text so the adult is less likely to revert to straight reading, the parent or teacher has the child relate much
of the story. The adult assumes the role of an active listener—querying, encouraging, and expanding on what the child has to say.
161
What are some other contexts for joint adult-child engagement?
Everyday routines and duties and mealtime conversations are two examples.
162
Parental oversight and involvement in children’s TV viewing are essential for what two reasons?
[1] Preschoolers easily misunderstand televised material,
[2] weak government regulation of American TV means that without parental controls, child viewers are exposed repeatedly to antisocial attitudes and behaviors.
163
What does Vygotsky’s concept of “the zone” clarify for us?
The true meaning of “quality time.”
164
What must we do to keep young children in “the zone,” motivated, involved, and ever advancing
to new heights?
Make sure you can summarize the communicative principles in the text.
165
The early months (birth through 8 months):
| Interest in others
-Newborns prefer the human face and human sound. Within the first two weeks, they recognize and prefer the sight, smell, and sound of the principal caregiver.
-Social smile and mutual gazing is evidence of early social interaction.
The infant can initiate and terminate these interactions.
- Anticipates being lifted or fed and moves body to participate.
- Sees adults as objects of interest and novelty. Seeks out adults for play. Stretches arms to be taken.
166
The early months (birth through 8 months):
| Self-awareness
-Sucks fingers or hand fortuitously.
-Observes own hands.
-Raises hands as if to protect self when object comes close to face.
-Looks to the place on body where
being touched.
-Reaches for and grasps toys.
-Clasps hands together and fingers
them.
-Tries to cause things to happen.
-Begins to distinguish friends from strangers. Shows preference for being held by familiar people.
167
The early months (birth through 8 months):
| Motor milestones and eye-hand skills
-The young infant uses many complex reflects: searches for something to suck; holds on when falling; turns head to avoid obstruction of breathing; avoids brightness, strong smells, and pain.
• Puts hand or object in mouth. Begins reaching toward interesting objects.
• Grasps, releases, re grasps, and releases object again.
• Lifts head. Holds head up. Sits up without support. Rolls over. Transfers and manipulates objects with hands. Crawls.
168
The early months (birth through 8 months):
| Language development/communication
- Cries to signal pain or distress.
- Smiles or vocalizes to initiate social contact.
- Responds to human voices. Gazes at faces.
- Uses vocal and nonvocal communication to express interest and exert influence.
- Babbles using all types of sounds. Engages in private conversations when alone.
- Combines babbles. Understands names of familiar people and objects. Laughs. Listens to conversations.
169
The early months (birth through 8 months):
| Physical, spatial, and temporal awareness
-Comforts self by sucking thumb or finding pacifier.
-Follows a slowly moving object with eyes.
-Reaches and grasps toys.
-Looks for dropped toy.
-Identifies objects from various viewpoints. Finds a toy hidden under a blanket when placed there while
watching.
170
The early months (birth through 8 months):
| Purposeful action and use of tools
- Observes own hands.
- Grasps rattle when hand and rattle are both in view.
- Hits or kicks an object to make a pleasing sight or sound continue.
- Tries to resume a knee ride by bouncing to get adult started again.
171
The early months (birth through 8 months):
| Purposeful action and use of tools
- Expresses discomfort and comfort/pleasure unambiguously.
- Responds with more animation and pleasure to primary caregiver than to others.
- Can usually be comforted by familiar adult when distressed.
- Smiles and activates the obvious pleasure in response to social stimulation. Very interested in people. Shows displeasure at loss of social contact.
- Laughs aloud (belly laugh).
- Shows displeasure or disappointment at loss of a toy.
- Expresses several clearly differentiated emotions: pleasure, anger, anxiety or fear, sadness, joy, excitement, disappointment, exuberance.
- Reacts to strangers with soberness or anxiety.
172
Crawlers and walkers (8 to 18 months):
| Interest in others
- Exhibits anxious behaviors around unfamiliar adults.
- Enjoys exploring objects with another as the basis for establishing relationships
- Gets others to do things for child’s pleasure (wind up toys, read books,get dolls).
- Shows considerable interest in peers.
- Demonstrates intense attention to adult language.
173
Crawlers and walkers (8 to 18 months):
| Self-awareness
- Knows own name.
- Smiles or play with self in mirror.
- Uses large and small muscles to explore confidently when a sense of security is offered by presence of
caregiver. Frequently checks for caregiver’s presence.
- Has heightened awareness of opportunities to make things happen, yet limited awareness of responsibility of own actions.
- Indicates strong sense of self through assertiveness. Directs actions of others (e.g., “Sit there!”).
- Identifies one or more body parts.
- Begins to use me, you, I.
174
Crawlers and walkers (8 to 18 months):
| Motor milestones and eye-hand skills
- Sits well in chairs.
- Pulls self up, stands holding furniture.
- Walks when led. Walks alone.
- Throws objects.
- Climbs stairs.
- Uses marker on paper.
- Stoops, trots, walks backward a few steps.
175
Crawlers and walkers (8 to 18 months):
| Language development/ communication
Understands many more words than can say. Looks toward 20 or more objects when named.
- Creates long, babbled sentences.
- Shakes head no. Says two or three clear words.
- Looks at picture books with interest, points to objects.
- Uses vocal signals other than crying to gain assistance.
- Begins to use me, you, I.
176
Crawlers and walkers (8 to 18 months):
| Physical, spatial, and temporal awareness
-Tries to build with blocks.
- If toy is hidden under one of three cloths while child watches, looks under the right cloth for the toy.
-Persists in a search for a desired toy even when toy is hidden under distracting objects, such as pillows.
-When chasing a ball that has rolled
under sofa and out the other side, will make a detour around sofa to get ball.
-Pushes foot into shoe, arm into sleeve.
177
Crawlers and walkers (8 to 18 months):
| Purposeful action and use of tools
```
-When a toy winds down, continues
the activity manually.
• Uses a stick as a tool to obtain a toy.
• When a music box winds down,
searches for the key to wind it up
again.
• Brings a stool to use for reaching for
something.
• Pushes away someone or
something not wanted.
• Creeps or walks to get something or
avoid unpleasantness.
• Pushes foot into shoe, arm into
sleeve.
• Feeds self finger food (bits of fruit,
crackers).
• Partially feeds self with fingers or
spoon.
• Handles cup well with minimal
spilling.
• Handles spoon well for self-feeding.
```
178
Crawlers and walkers (8 to 18 months):
| Expression of feelings
- Actively shows affection for familiar person: hugs, smiles at, runs toward, leans against, and so forth.
• Shows anxiety at separation from primary caregiver.
• Shows anger focused on people or objects.
• Expresses negative feelings.
• Shows pride and pleasure in new accomplishments.
• Shows intense feelings for parents.
• Continues to show pleasure in mastery.
• Asserts self, indicating strong sense of self.
179
Toddlers and 2- year-olds (18 months to 3 years):
| Interest in others
Shows increased awareness of being seen and evaluated by others.
• Sees others as a barrier to immediate gratification.
• Begins to realize others have rights and privileges.
• Gains greater enjoyment from peer play and joint exploration.
• Begins to see benefits of cooperation.
• Identifies self with children of same age or sex.
• Is more aware of the feelings of others.
• Exhibits more impulse control and self-regulation in relation to others.
• Enjoys small-group activities
180
Toddlers and 2- year-olds (18 months to 3 years):
| Self-awareness
Shows strong sense of self as an individual, as evidence by “No” to adult requests.
• Experiences self as a powerful, potent, creative doer. Explores everything.
• Becomes capable of self-evaluation and has beginning notions of self (good, bad, attractive, ugly).
• Makes attempts at self-regulation.
• Uses names of self and others.
• Identifies 6 or more body parts.
181
Toddlers and 2- year-olds (18 months to 3 years):
| Language development/ communication
-Combines words.
• Listens to stories for a short while.
• Has speaking vocabulary that may reach 200 words.
• Develops fantasy language. Begins to play pretend games.
• Defines use of many household items.
• Uses compound sentences.
• Uses adjectives and adverbs. Recounts events of the day.
182
Toddlers and 2- year-olds (18 months to 3 years):
| Physical, spatial, and temporal awareness
* Identifies a familiar object by touch when placed in a bag with two other objects.
* Uses tomorrow, yesterday.
* Figures out which child is missing by looking a children who are present.
* Asserts independence: “Me do it.”
* Puts on simple garments, such as cap or slippers.
183
Toddlers and 2- year-olds (18 months to 3 years):
| Purposeful action and use of tools
* When playing with a ring-stacking toy, ignores any forms that have no hole. Stacks only rings or other objects with holes.
* Classifies, labels, and sorts objects by group (hard versus soft, large versus small).
* Helps dress and undress self.
184
Toddlers and 2- year-olds (18 months to 3 years):
| Expression of feelings
• Frequently displays aggressive
feelings and behaviors.
• Exhibits contrasting states and mood shifts (stubborn versus compliant).
• Shows increased fearfulness (of dark, monsters, etc.).
• Expresses emotions with increasing control.
• Aware of won feelings and those of others.
• Shows pride in creation and production.
• Verbalizes feelings more often. Expresses feeling sin symbolic play.
• Shows empathetic concern for others.
185
Toddlers and 2- year-olds (18 months to 3 years):
| Motor milestones and eye-hand skills
* Scribbles with marker or crayon.
* Walks up and down stairs. Can jump off one step.
* Kicks a ball.
* Stands on one foot.
* Threads beads.
* Draws a circle.
* Stands and walks on tiptoes.
* Walks up stairs one foot on each step.
* Handles scissors.
* Imitates a horizontal crayon stroke.
