relationships Flashcards
(113 cards)
1
Q
what is evolution
A
changes to the biology of a species over time
2
Q
what is sexual selection
A
type of natural selection where individuals with the traits that increase their ability to attract mates are more likely to reproduce and pass on their genes
3
Q
what natural selection
A
the idea that individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on their advantageous genes
4
Q
what is anisogamy
A
difference between male and female gametes
5
Q
what does anisogamy lead to
A
it leads to two types of selection in females and males
6
Q
what are the 2 types of selection
A
inter sexual selection
intra sexual selection
7
Q
what is inter sexual selection
A
the idea that females show preferences for certain qualities within the opposite sex and are pre-programmed to mate with individuals who hold these qualities
8
Q
why are females more selective in their choice of partner
A
as they do not want to go through the consequences of mating with an unsuitable male therefore invest more when it comes to reproduction
9
Q
what things do females look at when choosing a mate
A
-good resources, economic and financial security, well educated
-good genes, good health, hair, weight
-good parents, ability to provide, be affectionate, be protective
10
Q
what is intra sexual selection
A
the idea that males compete with each other for mates, theyre less selective than females, but look for signs of fertility
11
Q
what is the male reproductive strategy
A
to mate with as many fertile females as they can
12
Q
what are the consequences of two different types of selection
A
-males and females look for different things in a partner
-they adopt different mating statergies
-sexual dismorphism, difference in appearance of males and females of the same species
13
Q
state evaluation points for evolutionary explanations
A
-hatfield(1989), sent male and female psychologists, accross campus to individually approach students with the question
ive seen you on campus and find you attractive, will you go to bed with me tonight,
not one female said yes and 75% male said yes immediately, supports the theory that females are more selective when it comes to mating and that males have a different mating strategy
-research support for preferences for anisogamy
buss surbeyed 10000 adults in 10 different countries
females valued resource characteristics such as finances and males valued reproductive capacity, good lucks, supports evolutionary differences and can be applied accross all cultures, however ppts may have given answers that were socially expected rather than their own preferences
-ignores social factors, e.g introduction of the contraceptive pill, has given women more control over reproduction
also as women have entered the workforce, they’ve become more financially independant and may not priortize partners wealth as much as in the past
-
14
Q
what are 3 factors affecting physical attraction
A
-self disclosure
-physical attractiveness
-filter theory
15
Q
what is self disclosure
A
revealing personal information about yourself
16
Q
why do people self disclose
A
in early days of a relationship we like to learn as much as we can about the new partner, we share our likes thoughts dislikes fears etc, the more we learn about them the more we understand and like them
it also strengthens a a romantic bonf if used appropriately
17
Q
what is the social penetration theory
A
theory explains how we form relationships through self disclosure, the gradual process of revealing personal information
for a relationship to deepen both partners must open up and penetrate deeper into each other lives
18
Q
state the gradual process of self disclosure
A
at first we share low risk information
then overtime as trust builds we share more personal and sensitive information,share thoughts and feelings
the exchange is reciprocal, if one person opens up , the other is expected to do the same, this mutual trust helps build relationships
19
Q
what is breadth and depth
A
breadth is how much you talk about certain information
depth is how personal and deep the information
20
Q
how does breadth and depth differ throughout the relationship
A
early stages both are narrow, as relationships develop both increase and more topics are discussed
21
Q
what is tmi
A
too much information, revealed can harm the relationship, as becomes overwhelming and increases vulnerability before relationship is developed
22
Q
what is reciprocity and whys it needed
A
reciprocial element is needed for a relationship, once you have disclosed information your partner must respond in a way which is rewarding, and understanding with empathy, and adress their own intimate thoughts and feelings, this leads to a balance between both partners deepening the relationship
23
Q
Evaluation for self disclosure
A
research support, hass and hartford, found that 57% of homosexual ppts beleived that open self dislcore was a key way to maintain close relationships, supports idea that sharing information is important for developing intimacy within romantic relationships
however, most evidence for self disclosure comes from correlational studies, meaning researchers can see a link between self discloure and relationship satisfaction, but cannot prove that one causes the other, limits the strength of conclusions that can be drawn
-practical applications, as learning when and how to share personal information can help couples communicate better and form more satisfying, stronger relationships,showing how social penetration theory can be used oratically to enhance romantic relationships
-most supporting research comes from western individualstic cultures where personal sharing and openness is encouraged whcih is different to collectivist where people are more reserved,as a result self disclosure may not be seen as appropriate or essential, challenged the idea that self disclosure is always needed to form satisfying relationships and limits univeral applicability of the theory
24
Q
state the two matching hypothesis
A
1- attractive people expect an attractive partner,
2- partners who are equally matched are more happier
25
what are key ideas of the matching hypothesis
everyone is naturally drawn to attractive people, however there is not enough of them to pair up with everyone
26
what do we look at before choosing a partner
we look at ourselves first, assess our physical attractiveness, and then look for a partner who is at a similar level, we desire to be with the most attarctuve partner byt fear rejection
thefore look for a realstic match who we can maintain a relationship with
27
which features make a person more physically attractive, give some research support
-people are attracted to baby like features, large eyes, small nose, delicate chin
-this is because they trigger an instinct for protection and caring
-facial symmetry is also seen as attractive
-shackleford and Larson, found people with facial symmetry are seen as attarctive as they have an honest set of genetic fitness, facial symmetry cannot be faked
28
what is the halo effect
the idea that individuals seen as physically attractive create a favourable impression, trustworthy, optimistic successful
the belief that good looking people will have such characteristics makes them more attarctive to us and we behave more psotivily towards them
29
state research support for halo effect
palmer and peterson found that physically attarctive people are rated as more politically knowledgebale and competent than untracttive people
30
AO3 for matching hypothesis, physical attractiveness
reasearch support for matching hypothesis, feingold looked at 17 studies and found a strong link between how attractive partners rated each other, supports idea that people oftem choose partners who are similar to them in physical attractiveness
-contradictory research for matching hypothesis, taylor et al looked at users of a dating website and found that people were more likely to try and meet someone who wasmore attarctive than them, which goes against the m hypothesis, that people are more likely to choose someine with similar levels of attractiveness
-individual differneces in how much people care about physical attractiveness, towhey found through a questionaiire that people with sexist attitudes were more influenced by looks when rating potential partenrs, showing how physical attractiveness is not always important to everyone, going against the matching hypothesis, that physical attractiveness is always a key factor
-
31
what is the filter theory
idea that we all have a large group of people we could possibly form a re;tionship with therefore we use 3 filters to narrow it down to a smaller group
32
state the 3 filters
social demographic- we tend to choose people who are simialr to us in social status, education level, who live in same area as us as were more likely to connect with them
similarity of attitudes- in the first 18 months, were more likely to form a relationship with someone who we have same beleifs, opinions and values, this leads to patners to open up more, self disclose more
complementairity- over time similarities become less important, and becomes more about how well your personalities and needs balace each other out
33
homogamy definition
were more likely to form a relationship who are culturally or socially similar
34
AO3 for filter theory
-research support, Gruber-baldini et al, did a study, where he found that couples who were more simialr in age and education at the start of the relationship were more likely to stay togethor, supports the idea that things like age, location,education play a key role when forming relationships
-contradictory research, studies argue that similarity might not cause attraction might be result of it, anderson found that couples become similar over time, and Davis and rustbult said that attitudes can align as relationship develops which shows that the need for similarity of attitudes amy not be important at the start, going against filter theory
35
social exchange theory
theory uses idea from economics and operant conditioning which is learning through rewards
the key idea is we try to get more rewards through love and support and try to reduce costs such as stress and arguements
we calculate the relationships through
rewards-cost=outcome
if the outcome is positive were more likely to stay, if its negative were not we may leave
36
whats the second way of judging a relationships value
CLalt- comparison levels for alternatives
37
what is CLalt
we ask ourselves
can I be happier with someone else? or even being single
we compare our current relationships with possible alternatives, if we think the alternatives look more rewarding we consider leaving and vice versa
wether we notice or consider alternatives dependant on how happy we are in the relationship
38
AO3 for social exchange theory
research support, sprencher, found that peoples commitment to relationships is strongly linked CLalt, rewards were especially important for women, when it came to satifcation, supports the idea that people calc rewards and costs and stay in a relationship accordingly
-set has vague concepts, what counts as rewards or costs is seen as subjective, some people might enjoy praise while others might find it annoying, and its hard to meausre and apply consistently as its unclear how much rewarding a relationship must be not consider alternatives
-practical applications, research support Christensen et al found that2/3 couples improved their relationships by looking at costs and benefits, showing sets use in practical settings
39
difference between equity and equality
equity refers to giving everyone what they need to be successful
equality is treating everyone the same
40
equity theory and consequences
relationship satisfaction comes from fairness not equality, when both partners feel equitable theyre more likely to stay happy and committed
its not about both givgin the exact same rewards or doing things that are exactly the same its about both feeling what they give and get is fair
-if one partner thinks theyre giving more than they get the feel underbenefitted and angry and resentful
-when a partner feels they get more than they give, they feel overbenefited and shameful and guilty
41
research support, from real life couples who said theory is more valid explanantiom than set, utne did a survey on 118 recently married couples meausinr equiity by two self report scales, found that those who found relationship more equitable were more satisfied
-equity theory states the need for equity is univeralsal across all cultures however, Ryan found cultural differences in link between equity and satisfaction, collectivist stated they felt more satisfied in relationship,comapred to individualistic where they found they wrere more satisfied when relationship was equitable
-individual differences, huseman found some people less sensitive to equity than others, some believe they dersve to be overbenefitted without feeling guilty, others prepare to give more than they give
42
rustbults investment theory
developed after the social exchange theory to explain why some people stay in relationships even when costs outweigh benefits, suggests maintenance of a relationship is determined by commitment
43
state 3 factors commitment depends on
-satisfaction level
-quality of alternatives
-investment size
44
what is investment
anything a person puts into a relationship that will be lost if the relationship ends
45
state the 2 types of investment
instrinsic refers to anything youve given or shared in a relationship that came fom within yourself such as the time and effort you put in, or sjaring your personal information
extrinsic refers to external things that may be lost if relationship ends, such as a shared pet or children
46
explain why it is important to understand investment
helps to explain why some people stay within a relationship even when costs outweigh benefits, the more you invest the harder it is to walk away
47
explain quality of alternatives
attractive alternative= leave the relationship
no attratctive relationship=will stay even if their is problems
sometimes being alone can seem better than staying in a relationship
48
AO3 of rustbults theory
-research support, rhatigan and axsom,studies women to see what made them stay within a relationship, they considered 3 factors when making their decision, satisfaction,investment, quality of alternatives, supports rusbults theory that these 3 factors play a key role in relationship commitment
-research support, explain abusive relationships, rusbult studied women in shelter who had been abused by partners, she found the women who put more investments such as more time,enegry or even had children, and women who saw no other option, no alternative were more likely to return to abusive partners,even if relationship was terrible they still went back as had a lot to lose and had no chance of surviving on their own, supporting rusbults theory
-correlational research, shows that their is a link between for example investment and staying in a relationship, but does not prove cause and effect,o tells us people who invest more likely to stay but doesn't tell us if investment directly causes commitment, as well as that has lack of predictive power, as doesnt say which type or how much investment causes someone to stay in a relationship, important as in psychology main goal is to predict behaviour, but c=because we cant identify specfic causes or predict future action it is less scientifically strong
49
state ducks theory
he stated that relationship breakdown is not a singualr event instead it is a gradual process, indivdiuals go through a series of phases before the breakdown, the model shows how people move emotionally and mentally through a the phasea and why relationship takes a while to end
50
2 factors which affect relationship
dispostional, these are personal factors that come from the person themselves such as negative attitudes towards a relationship
situational, these are environmental factors such as long distance
51
state the 5 stages of relationship breakdown
intra psychic- one partners becomes more and more dissatisfied within the relationship, but they do not tell their partner yet, if dissatisfaction continues they carry on to the next phase
dyadic phase-where the dissatisfied partner confronts the other partner, the break up is iniated, the dissatisfied partner beleive they have justfied reasons to end the relationship
social stage- where the break becomes aired and public, family anf friends find out, also where social implications such as care of children is negotiated
-grave dressing phase,ex partners start orgnanizing life without each other, begin to adjust life without the other partner, start telling others their version of why it ended, often make their self image look good and start blaming the other person or other factors
-resurrection phase, each partner starts preparing for new relationships, but working on past mistakes
52
AO3 of ducks model
-individual differences, does not apply to every case of relationship breakdown and may not always occur in the same order, also does not explain why dissatisfaction occured in the first place,fails to provide a complete explanation for relationship dissolution
-research support by tashiro and Frazier, found that people are more likely to blame the situaion than themselves and view it positively and move on, supports grave dressing phase, that people tell their own view of the story after the break up to proctect their self esteem, making model more believable
-based on retrospective data, often research make ppts to look back and remeber what happened during break up, memories may be in accurate and the asnwers may be influenced by their current feelings, less reliable and valid, and may not take inco account how break ups happen in real life
-ethical issues in research, breaks ups are often distressing/ sensitive m as in involves priavte matters like abuse or may be emotionally disstressing for others so its hard to get useful data without harming ppts
-does not take into account individual differences, or different types of relationships, e.g dickson found that family/friends tends to take teen break ups less serious and do not help as much, wjhereas older aged couple breakups they try harder to fix things as theyre seen as more upsetting, showing how the model does not apply to all types of relationships esepecially different agr groups
53
state how self disclosre works in online/virtual relationships
-reduced cue theory
-hyperpersonal theory
54
why might people self disclose more in virtual relationships
-anonymity, people feel safer sharing personal information as they don't know who they are
-talking to strangers, easier to open up when you don't know the people in real life
-less embarrasment, no awkwardness
-more time to think can plan what your gonna say
-increased confidence, behind a screen boosts persons confidence expressing themselves more
55
why might people self disclose less
trust issues, harder to trust people online leading to less openess
-fear of being blackmailed and catfishes
-less self disclore as more careful editing, people overthink and edit what they say to avoid saying the wrong thing
56
state reduced cues theory, including self disclosure
states online communication lacks the social cues such as facial expression, tone, body language that help us understand each other better, due to this its harder build turst and open up, so less self discloure
57
state hyperperosonal theory
states online communication leads to more self disclosure, people might feel more safer and in contol owhen sharing info online, helps relationship to develop faster and feel more intimate
58
what is gating in relationships
in face to face relationships theres often obstacles which can disrupt formation of a relationship
59
give some examples of gating
-physical appearance ( not fitting beauty standards)
-social anxiety
-shyness, speech issues, anything which can cause an individual to be judged quickly
60
state an advantge of virtual relationships in response to gating
one advantage is that gating is absent in virtual relationships, the obstacles are removed, people do not worry about what they look or how confident thet are, the focus is more on what they say their thoughts feelings, personality, this puts more I'm[portance on self discloure helping forming deeper relationships
61
state AO3 for virtual relationships
-lacvk of research support for reduced cue thwory, which states non verbal cues are absent, walther found that people use other cues such as time and styling of messages e,g taking time to reply, or use acrostics such as lol emojis or gifs which are effective substitutes for facial expressions and tone of voice
-type off online communication can differ, its extent and depth depends on the type of social networking used, paine found that people share more perosnal infoimration on facebook than on professional business sites or even dating websites, they self disclose less in dating websites as their is more of a chance of meeting face to face, and they fear getting judged in person so do not fully open up, whereas on gaming websites people self dsiclose more as theirs less chance of meeting
-nucleaus accumbens is an area in the brain involved in reward system, studies show when we self disclose this are becomes active, showing how self discloure makes us feel rewarded, which leads to more frequent comminctaion and stronger emotional connections in virtual relationships, shows how were naturally motivated to self disclose, and online platforms gives us safe space to do that, showing how emotional depth and intimacy can develop even without face tp face interaction
-research support to show that online environments can form relationships, rosenfeld and thomas looked at 4000 people, found that 72% who had access to inyernet were married or in relationship, and only 36% who had no access were in a relationsjip, showingbhow socials can make us connect better with people and form relationships showing how virtual relationships are valuable and effective
-studies have low temporal validity, as most studies were conducted in early 2000s since then how relationships work online have changed due to technology developing , showing how findings amy not fully apply to relationships today
62
what is a parasocial relationship
one sided relationship between a person and a media personality, who is outside the personsl real social network usually without the celebrity knowing
63
how do parasocial relationships develop
-they feel they know the person through seeing them on media, the celebrity may reveal feelings on media leading to a sense of intimacy, words of love songs may also hold significant importance
64
who develops para social relationships
-young people mostly of seondary school age
-media personalities can provide role models for young people
-which helps them to develop a sense of identiy usually in + way
65
state a study related to parasocial relationships
Gabriel, studied 100 university students
-first did a test on self esteem
-then wrote essay on celebrity crush
-then did another test on self esteem
-found that those who initally scored lower on self esteem test scored higher after essay
, as they saw their celebrities as themselves, very similar therefore contributed their positive attributes into their own self image
66
state the 3 levels of parasocial relationships
entertainment social- attarction based on keen interest, celebrity is seen/viewed as source of entertainment, and fuel for social interaction and gossip
-intense personal-greater involvment and stronger emotions towards celebrity, intense thoughts feelings which they may share with someone who feels similar way, start of obsession
-borderline pathological-strongest levek of celebrity worship, extreme behavioyrs, prevent individual to live normal life, may be willing to do illegal act, spend large amount on celebrity related object
67
who is more likely to form parasocial relationship
-those who lac k real life fullfillment, those who feel unfulfilled in everyday life may turn to celebrities for emotional connection
-weak sense of identity, if someone struggles with self identiy and self esteem they may find it safer to connect witj someone famous from a distance
68
state absorption addcition model
stage 1 = absorption, becoming deeply involved with celebrities life following interviews etc, helps them to escape reality
stage 2 = addiction, connection becomnes more obsessive addictive, person feelds need to be more closer, leading to extreme behaviour like behaving they have relationship with them
69
ao3 for parasocial relationship
-research support, Maltby et al, found teenage girls who were very obsessed with celeberities admiring their look had poor body images, supporting the idea that those who lack/struggle with self esteem more likely to form parasocial relationships
-however, most research is based of self report data such as questionaiires which introduces social desirability and people may not be honest, therefore findings may not be accurate and show how parasocial relations form in real life reducing relaib ality and validity
-research support, greenwood and long people may turn to celebrity worship to cope with loniless/loss, however, contradictory research no link found between parasocial relations and loniliness, chory-assad and yanen
-universally applicable, celebrity worship is seen evryhwere, schmid found similar levels of worship for harry potter in Germany and in Mexico
70
what is addiction
a disorder where a person takes a substance i or takes part in a behaviour which becomes problematic and leads to harmful consequences
71
state the features of addiction
withdrawal
depdenace- phsycological and physical
withdrawal syndrome
72
dependance
physical- compulsions to continue in order to contously seek a postive experience
psychological- the state of the body when a substance is reduced or stopped leading to withdrawal syndrome
73
what is tolerance
state the two types
-reduced response to a substance, more is needed to get same response, initally cauing more potential harm
-cross tolerance, when developing tolerance to one substnace leads to reduced sensitivty to another,e.g alcoholics need higher doage of anastheticd
-behavioural tolerance, addicts learn to adapt their behaviour in response e.g alcoholics walk slower to avoid injury
74
what is meant by withdrawal symptoms
unpleasant physical and psychological effects after reducing or stopping a substance, often opposite of the drugs effects
75
why do withdrawal symptoms happen
showes a person has developed physical dependance on the drug, the body becomes adapted to the drug therefore removing them causes an unbalance/imbalance
76
state ther term risk factor in addiction
internal or external influences which increase the chance of a person developing an addiction
77
genetic vulnerability + a study
addiction is not inherited but the predispostion to the depedancy is
-shows why some devlop addiction and others do not
-kendler, found that children adopted away from addicted biological parents had 8.6% to develop addiction as adults, compared to less than half for those adoptees who had non addicted biological parents
78
state AO3 for genetic vulnerability
-research support, kendler
-determninistic, suggests people have no control over whether they develop addiction, ignores idea of free will
-reductionist approach, focuses too much on genes, ignores social influences such as peer pressure, cultural norms, or religous beliefs which prevent peopl from using drugs or alcohol at all
-genetic do play a role, but are not the whole story, studies of tiwns show that if one twin develops addiction the other is also more likely too aswell, however the concordnace rate is less than 100% showing genes are not the only factor
not only that twins are not same as general population, as they live in wom b togethor and compete for nutrients and oxygen which single births do not go through
79
state two more explnantions of genetics
dopamine, different types of d2 receptors, d2 being one, which is ab normally low in those with addiction
-metabolising enzymes, some people metablise subtsances faster/greater than others, pianezza found that those with fully functioning metablising enzyme were more likely to develop addiction than those with partially wokring enzyme
80
stress+AO3
higher risk of developing addiction, if expereing high levels of stress, or even traumatic childhood
-might turn to substances to give them temporary releif as coping mechanism
-epstein found strong correlation between childhood rape and alcohol addiction, as women had twice as many ptsd symptoms and showed more signs of alcohol problems
-tova lacci et al found that stressed uni students were more likely to smoke drink heavily as coping mechanism
-however issue with study by tovalacci got information through questionaiire, social desirability,
-both studys are correlational show link but cannot prove causation
81
state the desesitisation hypothesis
state explanantion 1
-our brains neurons produce a chemical called acetyl choline, it is linked to the brain reward system, so this chemical plays a role in feeling good
-when act is released it travels to other neurons and attacthes to receptors, and if enough of these chemicals attatch to receptors action potential is relased, over time if too much act is relased, it constantly stiumlates receptors and they become less sensitive, making them become less effective and effect how rewards are felt
82
state the second explanantion refer to nicotinic receptors
nicotnic receptors are sepcial types of receptors in the brain, they detect and respond to both nictone and acetylcholine, when the nicotine binds to these receptors theyactivate a neuron which relases dopamine- a chemical which makes you feel reward and pleasure, causing addiction
83
what happens over time with nicotine use
-over time constant nictone use means more dopamine relased and brain becomes less sensitive to it therefore more is needed to experince the same effect
84
state one area linked to pleasure in the brain
nucleus accumbens
reward centre
where nicotine binds to nicotinic recpertors releasing dopamine
85
state AO3 for desensitisation hypothesis
-research suuport, domino used fmri scans to see effect in brain after smoking, found that after first one blood flow increased to areas linked to reward such as nucleus accumbens, and after second effect was weaker supporting desensitisation, that brain responds less after repeated use, low nicotine caused smaller chnages compared to bigger, showing nicotine strengths matters
-markous and dsouza, found that when they blocked glutamate, chemical involved in addiction, rats payed less interest in nicotine, supportin idea that glutamate plays a role in addiction, however humans animals different, cannot extrapolate findings
86
state nicotine regulation model
when smoker has not smoked nicotine for a while, nicotine breaks down,leaves body acetylcholine recpetors work normally again, and become sensitive like before leading to withdrawal sysmptoms, like anxiety,cravings so smoker is motivated to smoke again to reduce unpleasant feelings
87
state ao3 for nicotine regulation model
-crosgrove et al, did a study where he looked at effects of smoking in men and women using pet scans, found that dopmine took effect in different regions in males/females, showing they smoke for different reasons, explnantion does not take this ino account
-limited explanantion, research shows that pther neurontransmitters are also involved such as seratonin and gaba, research is very important as nicotine addiction can cause disroders such as longer cancer which are fatal, so developemt of treatments is based of this research, which is important to individuals wellbeing
-does not take into account individual differences, as some only smoke occasionally and remain like that, while others get addicted very fast
-reductionist approach, as only takes into account neurochemical processes, fails to take into account social/psychological factors, as choi et al found that students who were most likely to get addicted to nicotine were those who felt like they were underachieving, showing feelings, self esteem play a big role
-research from study of parkinson pateints showed link between dopamine and nicotine, parkinson means loss of dopamine producing cells,m found that addicters were less likely to develop parkinsons disease, showing how there is link between nicotine and dopamine, and suggests nicotine has protective effect against parkisnons
88
state positive reinforcement in terms of nicotine addiction
-when a behaviour involves a reward, so makes it more likely to repeat the behaviour
-nicotine acts as a strong reward because it relases dopamine a chmeical which makes you feel good, it activate the reward pathway making smoking feel pleseant, therefore explain why people start smoking as it involves pleasant feeling
89
state negative reinforcemnt in terms of nicotine addiction
-negative reinforcement refers to repeating a behaviour as it involves removal of unpleasant consequences
-when a person stops nicotine, they experince withdrawal symptoms such as anxiety crvaing, to remove these feelings a person smokes again to feel better, as the smoking removes the unpleasant withdrawal symptoms
90
state cue reactivity/classical conditioning
the pleausreable effcts from smoking are a primary reinforcer, as theyre naturally rewarding, when you smoke in vertain places, situations or with certain people, your brain starts to connect these things with the pleasureable effects of smoking, they then become seondary reinforces, therefore for example even if seeing a lighter, or hanging out with certain smokers, can cause cravings of addiction even when no nicotine is around
91
AO3 for classical conditioning
-theory of cue reactivity states why people start smoking again or relapse, but does not state how the addiction starts in the first place
-tiffany and Carter, did a meta analysis on 41 studies on different types of addiction, such as drugs, alcohol and found that when drug addicts saw drug related cues their cravings increased or physical reacrions such as increased heart rate, supporting the idea that cues alone can trigger a reaction
-calvert, found that smokers who were exposed to cig packeter had stong brain acitivty in nucleus accumbens, linked to reward, and same area which activated during smoking, showig how cues do trigger responses like hw=ow actual niucotine would
92
AO3 operant conditioning
93
state expectancy theory
the idea that sometimes people who have addictions have beliefs (that they have without realising) aboyt what will happen to them if they continue the behaviour]
-e.g they may think it may bring them good things like exitement and money rather than bad like losing money, deep down if they think this then they are more likely to repeat the behaviour
94
state what is meant by cognitive biase and what it may lead to
people who have gambling addiction often think about gambling related things such as wins near misses etc, this can lead to distorted thinking where gamblers beleifs about gambling are inaccurate
95
rickwoods theory
he stated that these errors and biases can be grouped into 4 main types
1) skill and judgement- gamblers often think they have control over things that are completely random like slot machines, and beleive they have the skill for picking winning numbers which gives them a false sense of control
2)personal traits./ ritual behaviours- some gamblers beleive they have a greater probability of winning as they lucky or use supersitous behaviours before placing a bet
3)selective recall- they remember their winning but forget/ignore their losses
4)faulty perception-they have distorted view about how chance works e.g they think a losing streak will end and their is always a win at the end
96
what is self Efficacy
-a persons beleif in their ability to succeed at a specifioc task or overcome a challenger
-those with low self efficacy, beleive they are unable to quit gambling, this beleif makes them more likely to continue the behaviour, low self efficacy develops after repeated failures of trying to stop, so they beleive they are unable to stop
97
AO3 of cognitive biases
-research support, michalczuk et al did study where he compared 30 gambling addicts to 30 non gambling addicts, found that gamblers had more thinking errors, distortions, and beleived they had control over random outcomes, were also more impulsive, reacted without thinking of consequences,supports idea of gamblers having errors in thinking and rickmans theory
-research support for rickmans theory, gettings did stroop test where ppts had to say colour of word rather than word itself, gamblers took longer to respond when words were gambling ralted such as jackpot/casino, showing gamblers have selective attention, and payed more attention to certain words even when they were trying not to
-methodological issues, most studies used self report techniques, raises problems as people may not be honest, or may not even be aware of their true thoughts, and what they think in the moment may not be reflective of their deeper beleifs or usual thinking, reducing validity and reliability, of methods
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CBT in reducing addiction
based on cognitive and behavioural techniques
challenging the negative thoughts
2 steps
-functional skills
-skills training
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state funcional analysis
-part of cbt helps patient understand their behaviour, and helps patient and therpaist identify which situations cause relaspe,
-involves looking at the persons thinking before during and after the situations, therapist challenges distorted thinking,
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skills training
-addicts often deal with their issues using their addiction as a way to cope, cbt replaces these coping mechanisms with more constructive methods
3 parts of skills training
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state the 3 parts of skills training
cognitive reconstructing- tack bias thought process, thoughts challenged by therapist
skills, clients may lack skills to cope with triggers, training with anger management and cope with avoidance behaviours
social skills- addicts may find socialising dififcult, therefore therapist models baheviour, and client copies through role play
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AO3 for cbt in reducing addiction
-research support, recruited gamblers through media advertising and put them in 1 of 2 conditions
-1= gamblers anonymous meetings only
2=gambler anonymous meetings plus cbt
-before study began no difference in levels of gambling between 2 groups, after study group 2 was found to gamble significantly less
-however, research shows that has higher drop out rate than other therapies, some addicts do not take the therapy seriously, while others do it due to large life event driving them to seek help, often drop out when its resolved
-techniques are positive for relapse prevention
-THERAPY AVOIDS EHTICAL ISSUES LIKE AVERSION THERAPY WHICH MAKES PPTS SICK OR DISTRESSED, MEANING MORE ARE LIKELY TO CONTIUE THE TREATMENT
-HOWEVER, USES A VARIETY OF TECHNIQUES, VARIETY ANF FELXIBILTY MAKES IT HARDER TO PINPOINT WHICH ELEMENT OF CBT DIRECTLY REDUCES ADDICTION
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drug therapy in nicotine addiction
-nrt helps people quit smoking by giving them nicotine is a safer way, such as through patches inhalers etc
-it releases nicotine in a controlled clean way sp it can trigger dopamine, chemical for reward, without the harmful effetcs like in cigaerettes
-it helps to reduce nicotine over time, reducing withdrawal symptoms
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drug therapy for gambling addiction
no current approved drugs for gambling addiction
-however naltrexone which is used to treat herion addiction shows promise as gambling addiction has same effect on brain as heroin abuse
-it reduces the release of dopamine in the brain making it less rewarding
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AO3 for drug treatment
-cheaper and easier to engage with than other treatments like cbt as only required prescription and medical supervision
-drug therapy removes the stigma around addiction encorages people to view it as a medical condition rather than psychological weakness so people are more likely to seek help
-however, side effetcs for drug therapy, dizziness making people to not take medication leading to relapse
-do not work for everyone in the samwe way due to small genetic variations between individuals which effect the outcome of drug treatment
-addicts live a unorgnanised lifestyle making harder to keep up with the drugs
-nrt users are up to 70% more likely to be abstaining 6 months after quitting
-research shows nrt more effective than placebo, or no treatment at all
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what is averison therapy
-behavioural treatment of addiction based on classical conditoning
-where you associate the addiction with a negative feeling rather than a positive one
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state how aversion therapy is done
alcohol addiction, substance antabuse was used, causing body to not process alcohol properly, leading to instant hangover and vomiting, was done to create a strong negative effect to alcohol
-gambling addiction, used eletric shocks were not harmful but painful, every time person saw gambling related flashcard would get electirc shock, goal was to link gambling with discomfot to break the habit
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covert sensitisation
-where persons imagines doing addictive behaviour, and something unpleasant happening as a result
-meant to create very uncomfortable consequnce, works better
-person is encouraged to use all senses, light, sound etc
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AO3 for aversion
-issue with ethical issues with aversion therapy, causes pshyical and phsychological harm,people less likely to continue due to effects
-chesser did a study, where he found that those who did aversion therapy stayed sober for atlas a year, supporting evidence to show its effectiveness, and support the idea in how classical conditioning can be used to treat addiction
-however, hajek and stead, looked at 25 different studies, anf ound they had metholodgical issues, and as they had serious porbelms with the way they were done, reducing relability of results
-however, relapse rate is high for aversion therapy,
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AO3 for covert sensitisation
ashem et al, research support, found that 40% of those receving cover sensitisation therapy abstained even six months after compared to control who had no change in drinking patterns
-McConaghy, found that those gamblers who did covert, after a year 90% gamblers redeuced their gambling acitvites compared to 30% for aversion
-behavioural therapiues are often used along side biological treatments therfore hard to evluate overall effectiveness
-behavioural interventions do not take intoi account the underlying cause of addiction such biological factors or social/environmental, more holistic approach might be more effective in achiveing long lastinf results
-more ethical than aversion , so lower drop out rate
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what is theory of planned behaviour
-developed by azjen
-used by practioners to predict the outcome of treatment plans
-theory used to predict behaviour and how a persons beliefs affect their behaviour, also looks at how likely someone is to change their behaviour in the future
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state the 3 components of theory of planned behaviour
-attitudes towards behaviour- how positively or negatively a person feels to perform a behaviour e.g i think exercising for me is good, so im more likely to do it
-subjective norms- how much social pressure an individual feels to perfrom a behaviour, e.g my friends and family think I should quit smoking, so i feel more motivated to do it
-perceived behavioural control-how much control an individual beleives they have based on internal/external factors e.g i deel i jave the skills and respurces to eat healthier
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AO3 for theory of planned behaviour
Godin (2006), looked at how well theory of planned behaviour worked in predicting planned behaviour,discovred a strong link between how much a person intended to quit smoking and whether they actually did
-since intention was so important, treatments should focus on boosting individuals will power and more control over their actions
-armitage et al, say tpb id too rational, states people make decisions logically step by setp, weakness as in life people often act based on their emotions or habits, not just careful thinking
-most research done, has methodological issues, as components were teste through questionaires/interviews therefore can show social desirability,decreases validity of findings,
-ALSO INTERVIEWS DONE WHEN PERSON IS SOBER, THERFORE MAY NOT REFLECT REAL LIFE SITUATIONS WHERE ADDICTIONS MAY BE TRIGGERED, SO EVEN IF THEY SAY THRY PLAN TO STOP, INTENTIONS MAY DIASSPEAR IF ADDICTION IS TRIGGERED
-webb et al did a study where he carried oput meta analysis of 47 studies and fou d tht there is a link between intention and behaviour, however that link is small, suggesting there is a significant gao between intentions and behaviou
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