relationships Flashcards
(106 cards)
1
Q
sexual reproduction
A
concerns selection of those characteristics that aid reproduction
2
Q
anisogamy
A
differences between female and male sex cells - gametes
3
Q
male sex cell vs female sex cells
A
sperm-
- small
- highly mobile
- continuously created in vast numbers from puberty to old age
- do not need much energy to be produced
egg-
- large
- static
- produced at intervals for a limited number of fertile years
- require vast amounts of energy
4
Q
consequence of anisogamy
A
no shortage of fertile male but a fertile female is much rarer ‘resource’
5
Q
The two types of anisogamy
A
INTER SEXUAL SELECTION
INTRA SEXUAL SELECTION
6
Q
Inter sexual selection
inter =
A
BETWEEN
- strategies used by male/female to select their partners
- preferred selection of the female
- Females invest more of their time; being pregnant/ giving birth/ looking after the baby = loose more if they make substandard choice.
7
Q
what is the female optimum mating strategy
A
to select a genetically fit partner who is able to provide resources
features are passed onto their offspring
8
Q
Runaway process
A
height example she selects height more height men hence we are left with men who are just tall. (characteristic becomes exaggerated)
9
Q
sexy sons hypothesis
A
- fisher et al
- a female who mates with a male who has a certain characteristic then will have sons who will inherit that same ‘sexy’ trait
- then her sons will also be selected because of that trait by other females and this will then carry on.
10
Q
Intra-sexual selection
INTRA=
A
-WITHIN
- Between males to be the one who gets selected. = plenty supply fro sperm
- its a competition - winner = passes down their characteristics other than the losers traits getting passed down. as they don’t mate
11
Q
Dimorphism
A
Males and females end up looking very different dues to intra selection
e.g physical competition size matters
larger men are likely to be reproductively more successful
vs females as they don’t need to look big and the best as
females:
- large waist hip ratio
- young = more fertile
12
Q
behavioural consequences
A
- deceitfullness
- agression
- intelligence
13
Q
research support for inter-sexual selection
A
-female + male psychology students out across a university campus
- with the question “i have been noticing you around campus, I find you very attractive. Would you go to bed with me tonight./
75% males did agree
0% females agreed
= women are more specific when it comes to choosing their partner hence have a partner preference
and that men have a different strategy
14
Q
However
A
too simplistic
- one for all one for only one?
- sexual strategies theory - strategies are the same when it comes to looking for long term partners
- both are very choosy - look for partners who are
- loyal
- loving
- kind
15
Q
research support for intra sexual selection
A
- survey
10,000
33 countries
evolutionary theory preferences are important?
female greater emphasis on resource related characteristics than men did
- e.g. ambition
males valued: physical attractiveness and youth
- reproductive value
supports the differences in partner preference from sexual selection theory
16
Q
social and cultural influences underestimated
A
social + cultural partner preferences
- availability of contraception
- womens greater role in workforce means they are no longer that dependent on the men.
- hence female preferences are no longer resource oriented
- partner preferences are a combination of evolutionary + cultural influences
17
Q
evaluation
A
research support for intra sexual
research support for inter sexual
social and cultural changes
homosexuality?
18
Q
evolutionary explanations for partner preferences
A
sexual selection
anisogamy
inter sexual selection
intra sexual selection
19
Q
Factors affecting attraction
A
self-disclosure
20
Q
self disclousure
A
revealing information about themselves
- gradual reveal
this can stenghten a relationship
likes dislikes deepest secrets
21
Q
researchers
A
ALTMAN + TAYLOR
22
Q
social penetration theory
A
revealing inner self to someone
deepest thoughts and feelings
reciprical exchange of information between intimate partners
sensitive infirmation
i trust you
parteners penetrate further into eachothers lives
23
Q
breath and depth of self-disclosure
A
- As both of these increase attraction also increases they become more committed to each other
24
Q
Outer layer of the onion
A
- low risk
information would be revealed to anyone
25
inner layers
- intimate
- painful memories and experiences
- secrets and strongly held beliefs
26
depentration
dissatisfied partners disclose less information
27
reciprocity of self disclosure
increases feelings of intimacy
deepens relationship
28
research support
heterosexual partners
strong correlation satisfaction levels and self disclosure = more sattisfied = more committed to their romantic relatioship
later study - more closer realtioships when partner takes turns to slef disclose
= increased validity
29
counter
correlation
satisfaction leads to more self disclosure
or 3 variable and satisfaction and self disclosure are independent variables
=reduces validity of the penetration theory
30
real world application
57%
used as a way to maintain and increase intimacy
can increase qulaity of a relationship and actually save many if the person is less skilled and communication is limited to small talk
= psychological ways may actually be useful
31
Factors affecting attraction
physical attractiveness
32
the Halo effect
Physically attractive people are consistently rated as kind strong sociable and successful compared to unattractive poeple
- the fact that good looking people would have these characteristics makes them even more attractive to us = behaving more positively towards them
-ONE DISTINGUISHING FEATURE (PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS) TENDS TO HAVE A DISPORPORTIONATE INFLUENCE ON OUR JUDGEMENT OF A PERSONS THER ATTRIBUTES EG PERSONALITY
33
Research on the matching hypothesis
Walster and Walster
- look for partners who are similar to us
- intelligence
- personality
- physical attractiveness
instead of choosing the most attractive people
34
the study
the computer dance
- men + women invited to a dance
- they were rated by objective viewers + signed a questionnaire about themselves - personality self esteem ect
- paired randomly by a computer
- computer used this info and paired the poepel together in regards to their answers
- most attractive people chose the acctrictive eoplethe most liked partners were also the most physically attractive rather than their own attractiveness being taken into account
35
the different variation
people were allowed to pick their partners themselves
36
findings
we choose those people that whole attractiveness maths our own
37
Reasearch support for the halo affect
physically attractive people were rated more politically knowlegable and competent than unattractive people even when people knew that these knowladgble people had no particular expertise
38
who is this bad fr
the political sysemt
39
evolutionary explanation
researh support for the evolutionary processes
women:
large eyes
high cheeckbones and eyebrows were rated as more atttractive by asian hispajic ans white men
reserachers concluded that what is considered as physically attractive is cnsistent across different societies
symmetry is part of genetic fittness
40
research on the matchih hypothesis
the dtaing appp
41
counter
- met analysis -17 studies
- significant correlation [
-them finding highly attractive guys doesnt mean they get them - just a fantasy maybe
laboritory
42
evaluation
research support for the halo effect
evolutionary explanation
reseach challang99999999999983780ing the matching hypothesis
individual differences
43
1st level of filter
social demography
proximity = accessibility
44
homogamy
likely to form a relationship with someone who is socially and culturally similar to you = commonality
45
2nd level of filter
similarity in attitudes
for couples less than 18 months - need to be at an agreement creates communicaion and promotes self disclousure
law of attraction
46
3rd level of filter
complementarity
ability to meet eachoters needs.
one partner has the traits which the other partner lacks
- long term relatioship as togtehr they form a whole
47
who
davies keckhoff
48
research support
davies kerkchoff
longitudinal study
questtionaire
- researching:
complementarity and similarity in attitude
relatioship closeness was measured by another questionnaire 7 months later
similarity of attitudes - impoertant for couples who had been together for only/less than 18months
long term relatioship = cimplimentarity of needs predicted closeness
49
however
difficult replicating the study above
- social changes (dating pattern changes
- 18 months cut is too long
- low validity
50
Problems with complementarity
- one needs to have dominance and the other a need to be submissive
- lesbian couples of equal dominance were the most satisfied
- mean time 4.5years
similarity better than complementarity
51
actual vs perceived similarity
- metal analysis
- lab based interactions
- similarities are gradual
52
theories of romantic relatiosnhips
Social exchange theory
53
social exchange theory
- a theory of how relatioships form and develop
- partners act out of self interest
- good relatioship is maintained when rewards exceed costs
- potential alternatives are less attractive than the current relatioship
54
rewards costs and profitis
profit = rewards-costs
55
rewards
- sex
-companionship
-emotional support
56
costs
time
stress
energy
compromise
opportunity cost
57
comparison level
- amount of rewards you believe you deserve to get
develops from our experience of previous relatioships which feed into our current ones
- social norms - books films ect
- self eteem
high cl will stay in the relationship
58
comparison levels for alternatives
- could i do better
-thinking if you would be happier more rewards in another relatioship
set: we will only stay in our current relatioship only if we think that it smore rewarding than alternives
59
stages of relatioship developmnt
- sampling stage - assesment center of costs and reaards through self or observation
- bargaining stage- start of the relatioship - negotiarting and identofying what is mre prfotabe
- commitment stage - preditability + more rewards and decreasing costs
- institulisation - relatioship is firmed now costs and rewards have been firmed now
60
resreach support
lesbian gay and straight couples
couples who were most committed perceived the most rewards and and fewer costs + plus saw alternatives as unattractive
questionnaire
= first study to show that comparison levels and comparison level alternatives are different phenomenas ie seperate
increases validity as they match the theroes predictions
61
counter
study ignored the cruscial factor of equity
vs equity theroy
not just the balance between costs and benefits but its alos about the perception of the partners on what is fair
62
direction of cause and effect
costs and rewards are a result of dissatifacation they dont cause them in the first place
63
vagues concepts
cannot test it as people have different rewards and ect its not real moeny which you can work out it smore to do with perception
dk the valued for comparison levela nd comparison levels for alternatives
no score is kept hence the theory is inaaporpriate
64
theories of romantic relationships;
equity theory
65
equity thery
criticism of the set not about profits but about balance
66
the role of equity
- level of profit should be the roughly the same for both
- not exactly
- one partner overbenefits the other underbenefits= dissatisfaction and happiness
overbenefit also bad under benefit also bad hence not treally about inequlity
67
equity and equality
equity is the overall balance
not the exactly doing equal tasks
one partner does night shifts and so cant vook dinner the other partner doesnt have to cook dinner but can compensate elesewhere
making trade offs
68
consequences of equity
correlation between - grater inequity and dissatisfaction
changes in percieved equity - change in the levels of equity as time goes on = dissatisfaction
dealing with inequity = more unfair the relatoship the harder it would feel to restore equity
cognitive = try percieving the costs as the norm - revise the perceptions of costs nad rewards
69
research support
questionnaire
recently married couples
measuring equity with two self report scales
16 - 45 and had been together before marrying for two years
equtabe couples were most satisfied than thos ehwo percieved themesleves as over or underbenefitted
major concern is equity
70
equity did not increase over time
relatiosniships which ended or continued did not differ in terms of equity
low validity as above was predicted to happen
71
culrtual limitations
individulsit - satisfied with equity
culturalist - jamaica- satisfied with over bennefitting men + women so cannot be explained by geneder difference
72
individualist differences
not everyone is concerned by equity
benevolents
entitleds
73
theories of romantic relationships
rosbult's investment
74
rosbult's investment model
factor 1 : satisfaction
- comparison level - satsifaction is judged by comparing rewards and costs = profits
Factor 2: comparison with alternatives
-
Factor 3: investment : anyothing we would lose if the relatioshi were to end
75
two types of investments
- intrinsic investments - resources we put directoy into the relatioship - money/possessions - energy emotions energy
- extrinsic- resources which previously were not featured in the relatioship - childrem car house friends meories
comparison level good
alternative level good
investments increasing
likely to stay in relatioship high
76
main psychological factor and contributory
commitment
satisfaction
someone may be dissatisfied but would stay in the relationship because they are committed as they may have made a big investment
77
relatioship maintainance mechanisms
accomodation
willingess to sacrifce
forgiveness
positive illusion
ridiculing altnerantives
78
research support
- meta analysis
- 5 coutries
- all three phenomenas comparison levels compraison levels alternatives and investment = commitment
- high commitment = strongest and most stable of them all
homoseual plus hetrosexual
79
counter
reversed caused
commitment cuases all thes ethings such as investment
80
explains abusive relatioships
domestically abused women
those that were most likely to return to their partner
reported having made the greatest investments
+ few attractive alternatives
women were dissatified in the relatioship but were still commited
= satisfaction on its own cannnot explain why peopl stay in a relatioshp
81
oversimplifies investment
more than just the resources you have put into the relatioship alos future plans are importent they want to cherrrish nd complete those future plans
doesnt explain the future influenes commiment
82
theories of romantic relatioships
ducks phase model
83
1
intra psychic phase
i cant stand this anymore - something has to change
cog itive processes occuring within the person
- tinking about why they are dissattisfied
private thinking maybe with a firend
pros and cons
evaluate alternatives + being alone
84
3
social phase
i mean it
mustaul friends choose a side
gossip
friends provide reassurance or reinforcement
blaming
no return
84
2
dyadic phase
I would be justifies by withdrawing
interpersonel processes within the partners
cant avoid talkinga bout their realtioship for any time longer
break or repair
self disclousre actually becomes more as tehyshare dthe thoghts they had been keeping away in the intra psychic phase
85
4
grave dressing phase
its now inevetible
aftermath
new story ect
86
real world application
helps understand how relationship breakdowns can be reversed
intrapsychic focus on the positives more
dyadic phase is communication and other social skills could help greater stabilty of the realtioship.
87
vs
infivifualist cultures - us
frequsntly come to a divorce
vs collectivist cultures
88
incpmplete model
resurrection phase
experience is applied to later/ future relationship
going form one to anothe ror going back is not inevetible because it is possile to go back
things that happen in the phases are more important eg goosip in social stage
89
earlier phases are less understood
recall may not be accurate or relaible usual recall happens afte rthe realtioship has enede sp last stages are more well remebered then the last ones
recall may be distoreted as the intra pychic model can happen for a long time
description other htna explanation
90
virtual relatiosnhips on self diclosure
91
self disclosure in virtual relatioships
reduced cues theory - virtual relatioships are less effective than the ftf ones as they lack many of the cues which we normally depend on in ftf interactions
de individuation = disinhibition
people less likley to self disclose
ppl feel freeier to communicat e
the hyperporsonel model
more self disclosure
more control over what they disclose and the cues they send - selective self- presentation -
sender manipulates their image and become a more desire type of image
hyperhonest or hyperdishonest
receiever gains a positive imge of the erso
anonimty
92
93
effects o absence on gating in virtual relatioships
any obstacle to when forming a relatioship
- physical unattractiveness
- facial disfiguration
- shyness blusging
relatioship can get of the ground quicker slef diclosure depper aswell
more interested in what you tell me than what i would like to see ect
be morethe freed self
untrue identities fake avatar
94
lack of support for reduced cues
nonverbal cues are different rather absent
- style
- taking time to end a messgae
too much time could be interpreatated as a snub
lol for expressions ect and tone of voice
relatioships can be just as personal as ftf ones
95
lack of support fo rthe hyperpersonel model
metanalsys
frequency breath and depth of self diclosure is always higher int the ftf relatioships
no diff in regards to self disclosure in ftf or virtual relatioships
96
vs
self presentation is manipulated in virtual relatioships
more hyperhoesnt
qftf small talk
dishoenslt editing pictures ect
97
support for absence if gating
shy lonely and socially anxious peole benefit from virtual relatioships
able to express their trues selves more than in ftf relatioships
71% vs 49%
98
parasocial relatioships scale
celebrity attitude scale
99
levels of parasocial relationship
entertainment social - least intense level of celebrity worship
- enetrtainemnt ad fuel for social interactions
- gossip
- talking baout shows
intense personal - intermediate
- greater personal involvement
- kim kardashians fan having intese feelings about her
borderline pathological - uncontralable fantasies and extreme behvaiours
- illegal act agreement or spending a huge chunk of money
100
the absorption addiction modellow slef
low self esteem
lack of fullfillment
absorption bcoming pre occupied with the celebrity
addictions - extreme thoughts
need to of increasing a dose in order to gain satisfaction
101
attachment theory explanation para social relatioships
attachemnt difficulties
adoloscen and adulthood
bowlby
ainsowrths tyo attachemnt tyoes
resistsant - unfulfilled needs met
- not accompnaised by the threat of rejection break up and dssapointemnt of a real life relatioship
avoidant - avoid pain and rejection of relatioships altogteher whetehr tehy be social or parasocial
102
research support for levels
predicitve validity
cas to meausrure parasocial relatioships
plus problems occuring in their actual relatioship
last two levels = high anxiety within their actaul relationships
enetrtainment social did not but instead assoiated with othe rproblems
103
support for absorption addiction model
defieciency in someones life would lead to them to form such a relatioship
body mage poor themselves the girls but the erson they admired had a good body shape
contributed to a an eating disorder
poor psychological functioning and the level of parasocial relatioship
104
universal tendency
collectivist - kuwait
indicudualist
universal explanations as insecure people were liley to form a parasocial relatioship with tv personalities and characters
105
vs
