Relationships

Question 1

what is sexual selection

Answer 1

the evolutionary explanation of partner preference, attributes that increase reproductive success are passed on and exaggerated over generations

Question 2

what is human reproductive behaviour

Answer 2

any behaviour which relates to opportunities to reproduce and therefore increase the survival chances of our genes

Question 3

what is anisogamy

Answer 3

the difference between the male and female gametes - resulted in no shortage of men, but fertile woman are deemed a rare resource

Question 4

inter and intra sexual selection

Answer 4

inter-sexual selection: the strategies (usually) women use to select a mate, between sexes.
intra-sexual selection: the strategies (usually) men use to be the one selected, within sexes.

Question 5

why are women more choosy

Answer 5

the consequences of choosing the wrong partner are much more serious for women, because they take 9 months to create a baby so they try and select genetically fit men who will provide resources for them.

Question 6

sexy sons hypothesis

Answer 6

fisher - women pick genetically fit men to pass on their strong genes to offspring, so they are inherited by their son.

Question 7

sexual selection & human reproductive behaviour ao3

Answer 7

✅ clark & hatfield - university study, asked men and women “would you like to go to bed with me tonight?” 65% of men said yes, and 0% women, showing they have to be more choosy.
✅ - men prefer large hips small waist as it is a sign of fertility, an evolutionary explanation
❌ - alpha bias, exaggerates the difference between men and women in sexual selection
❌ - lacks temporal validity due to the introduction of contraception, women don’t have to be as choosy because they can choose not to get pregnant.

Question 8

what is self disclosure

Answer 8

the extent to which we choose to share personal information to someone else

Question 9

what is reciprocity

Answer 9

the idea that in order to build trust, self disclosure must be equally reciprocated between two people

Question 10

breadth and depth of self disclosure

Answer 10

breadth - superficial, surface level info
depth - personal, secretive info

Question 11

social penetration theory

Answer 11

the idea that the more layers we penetrate in a person, by them self disclosing more deeply, the more trust we build

Question 12

self disclosure ao3

Answer 12

✅ sprecher and hendrick, found positive correlation between self disclosure and satisfaction
✅ - research has been used to improve relationships
❌ - some self disclosure can be damaging, such as revealing you cheated. dyadic phase in ducks model
❌ - ethnocentrism, collectivist cultures such as China do not self dislcose as much
❌ - environmental determinism, just because you self disclose does not mean you will form a happy relationship

Question 13

physical attractiveness

Answer 13

initial physical attraction is a key part of building a relationship

Question 14

what people find attractive

Answer 14

symmetrical faces are considered attractive because it is a sign of genetic fitness, which can be passed onto offspring
neotenous features are considered attractive because they stimulate a caring, protective instinct

Question 15

dion

Answer 15

the halo effect, we prescribe positive attributes to people who are physically attractive, such as smart, kind, funny etc

Question 16

walster

Answer 16

the matching hypothesis, it is unrealistic that we will all have a relationship with the most attractive people, so we form relationships with people who we think are a similar level of attractiveness to us.

Question 17

walsters study

Answer 17

randomly matched 50 ppts into pairs at a dance, and asked them to fill out a questionnaire at the end. found the opposite of the matching hypothesis, people always were more satisfied when they had a more attractive partner

Question 18

physical attractiveness ao3

Answer 18

✅ - physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable and more competent political leaders, hall effect
❌ - this has implications on the current political process, if people are voted in based on how attractive they are.
❌ - reductionist, there are other factors that affect attraction
✅ - beauty standards are universal across cultures
❌ - socially sensitive, people may think the reason why they aren’t getting dates is because they’re ugly

Question 19

filter theory

Answer 19

the idea that we filter out possible partners based on three factors

Question 20

social demography

Answer 20

the first filter out of three, based around geographical proximity and social class. we are more likely to form relationships with people who are geographically close to us, and in the same social class as us.

Question 21

similarity of attitudes

Answer 21

the more similar two peoples attitudes are at the start of a relationship, the more interesting conversations they can have, more likely leading to a relationship. examples such as likes / dislikes, hobbies etc

Question 22

complementarity

Answer 22

after time, similarity is replaced by complementarity, the idea that it is more important to have characteristics that complement eachother, allowing each partner ti have their strengths and play their own roles

Question 23

filter theory ao3

Answer 23

❌ - social demography is not as prevalent today due to the introduction of online dating, lacks temporal validity
❌ - research has shown that similarity increases over time, not complementarity
❌ - reductionism, does not include physical attractiveness or self disclosure
❌ - original, findings have never been replicated

Question 24

social exchange theory (all ao1)

Answer 24

• an economic theory that states satisfaction is based off of ratio of rewards and costs.
• rewards are anything you get out of a relationship, costs are anything you put into a relationship.
• the minimax principle states that we attempt to minimise costs snd maximise rewards
• comparison level is the ratio of rewards : costs we believe we deserve based on previous relationship experience
• comparison level for alternative is the idea that if an alternative partner were to provide us with a better rewards : costs ratio, we will leave our current partner and join the alternative
• ducks stages of relationship development: sampling, bargaining, commitment, institutionalisation

Question 25

social exchange theory ao3

Answer 25

❌ - rewards and costs are subjective, cannot be measured ❌ - all studies are artificial, e.g game involving rewards and costs, does not accurately represent a relationship ❌ - says that breakups are immediate, when this is not the case, they can happen over months ❌ - doesn't explain why people stay in abusive relationships

Question 26

equity theory (all ao1)

Answer 26

- equity refers to a fair distribution of rewards and costs between partners. it is an economic theory of relationships - satisfaction occurs in a relationship when both partners benefit equally. - if a partner over benefits, they feel guilt and shame, if a partner under benefits, they feel anger and resentment. - dissatisfaction occurs in a relationship when there is a change in perceived equity over time. - partners can work to reach equity again if they feel the relationship is still salvageable

Question 27

equity theory ao3

Answer 27

✅ - has predictive validity, equity at the start of a relationship is indicative of how long the relationship will last ✅ - more developed than SET, explains that people can work towards fixing a relationship instead of breaking up immediately ✅ - utne meta analysis, correlation between satisfaction and equity. ❌ - meta analysis issues ❌ - equity theory explains business related relationships better than romantic ones. in a romantic relationship you are less focused on your exact rewards and costs, but this is much more important in business related fields in negotiation. ❌ - doesnt explain why people stay in abusive relationships

Question 28

rusbult's investment model (all ao1)

Answer 28

- satisfaction refers to your reward : cost ratio, the more you benefit from a relationship the better your satisfaction. - comparison level for alternatives states that you are likely to leave your current partner if an alternative partner provides more rewards and less costs - investment are the resources that are attached to a relationship, you lose these resources if the relationship ends. -intrinsic investment are resources you put directly into the relationship - extrinsic investments are resources that weren't there at the start of the relationship - these 3 factors contribute towards commitment, how likely you will stay in a relationship - commitment leads to relationship maintenance techniques that promote the relationship, such as accommodation, positive illusions etc

Question 29

investment model ao3

Answer 29

✅ - explains why some people stay in abusive relationships, due to the investments they can't afford to lose, and positive illusions ✅ - le and agnew meta analysis, positive correlation between commitment and the 3 affecting factors ❌ - meta analysis issues ❌ - doesn't account for why new couples have such high commitment with such low investment ❌ - doesn't include future plans, such as partners staying together because they want to see their future plans flourish

Question 30

ducks phase model (all ao1)

Answer 30

- the phases of relationshio breakdown, you enter each stage when one partner reaches a specific threshold. - intra-psychic: "i cant do this anymore." the partner realises they are dissatisfied, may confide in a friend, begins to question their relationship. - dyadic: "i would be justified in leaving." both partners throw the blame at eachother in a series of conversations / arguments, has two results, either they attempt to make it work or they dont. - social: "i mean it." the breakup takes on the momentum of social pressure, mutual friends are forced to take sides. - grave dressing: "it's now inevitable." the partners put a positive spin on the events post breakup to maintain public image.

Question 31

phase model ao3

Answer 31

❌ - determinist, says that all relationship break downs happen in the same way, ignores free will ❌ - doesn't account for how some people get back together after breaking up, undermines the theory that after the dyadic phase it is irreversible. ❌ - all supporting studies are based off of self report after breakups, may be subject to social desirability bias or demand characteristics ❌ - can't study it real time because this may make a breakup more likely to happen which is inethical ❌ - culture bias, in collectivist cultures breakups involve the wider family and are therefore much more difficult

Question 32

virtual relationships

Answer 32

- self disclosure is important in face-to-face interaction, the virtual relationships explanation involves the effect of self disclosure on computer-mediated communication

Question 33

reduced cues model

Answer 33

- in FtF interaction, we rely on social cues such as facial expressions, gestures, etc, which are not present in CMC. this leads to deindividuation of the other person, leading to disinhibition which causes more blunt, meaningless conversation, causing less self disclosure.

Question 34

hyperpersonal model

Answer 34

- in CMC, there is a higher level of anonymity, which means we feel less accountable for our actions / feel less consequences for sharing our secrets. this leads to extremely high levels of self disclosure, causing high excitement in CMC. however, the level of trust does not usually match the level of excitement so virtual relationships end quickly, the boom and bust theory.

Question 35

absence of gating

Answer 35

- in FtF relationships, we have gates / obstacles such as physical attractiveness, social anxiety etc which are absent in CMC, this means relationships are more likely to start faster. - selective self presentation is the idea that you can alter how you appear / come off online, which you cant do in real life, which is another absent gate.

Question 36

virtual relationships ao3

Answer 36

❌ - cues arent reduced, just different, jpsuch as abbreviations, emojis etc ❌ - culture buas, abbreviations such as lol, omg are not present in non-english speaking countries ❌ - 70% of online relationships lasted 2 years, compared to 49% face to face relationships, opposing the boom and bust theory ❌ - most relationships aren't purely one or the other, they are a mix of the two, which the explanation doesn't account for ❌ - determinism, stating that all virtual relationships will end a certain way, ignores free will

Question 37

parasocial relationships

Answer 37

a one sided, unreciprocated relationship someone usually has with a celebrity in which they expend a lot of energy snd commitment

Question 38

mccutcheon's study

Answer 38

developed the celebrity attitude scale, a questionnaire investigating the different levels of parasocial relationship 1) entertainment social 2) intense personal 3) borderline pathological

Question 39

mccutcheon's theory

Answer 39

parasocial relationships occur in terms of deficiencies people have, people use parasocial relationships to feel fulfilled when they can't with their relationships in real life

Question 40

absorption addiction model

Answer 40

absorption: deficiencies in someones life causes them to turn to parasocial relationships to feel a sense of fulfilment addiction: in order to maintain this sense of fulfilment the person must expend increasing energy and commitment into the parasocial relationship

Question 41

atttachment theory for parasocial relationships

Answer 41

- attachment refers to a lasting bond in childhood. problems with attachment can cause people to turn to parasocial relationships to feel a sense of fulfilment. insecure-resistant children need the fulfilment of a relationship without the fear of rejection, insecure-avoidant would rather avoid the pain altogether.

Question 42

parasocial relationships ao3

Answer 42

✅ - not culture bound, theory of parasocial relationships is consistent across cultures ❌ - more of a description of parasocial relationships than an explanation of how they occur ❌ - all based on self report, which can be subject to social desirability bias and demand characteristics ❌ - attachment theory studies are correlational, could be a third variable