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Reproduction Flashcards

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1
Q

interphase phases

A

G1 phase - cell growth and organelles duplication

S phase - chromatid duplication

G2 phase
The cell checks the duplicated chromosomes and gets ready to divide.

M phase - mitosis + cytokinesis

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2
Q

mitosis process

A

Prophase - DNA condenses from chromatin into chromosomes and the nuclear envelope breaks down. Spindle fibres form
P for prior

Metaphase - chromosomes line up on top of/next to each other in the middle (equator) of the cell
M for middle

Anaphase - sister chromatids move away to the poles of the cells
A for away

Telophase - chromosomes are uncoiling, nuclear envelopes forming at both ends
T for tear away

Cytokinesis
Cell membrane pinches off, making two identical daughter cells

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3
Q

meioisis steps

A

PMAT 1 - splitting of diploid germ cell into 2 haploid cells, crossing over of homologous chromosomes (at chiasma) occurs in Prophase

PMAT 2 - splitting of 2 haploid cells into 4 unique haploid cells

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4
Q

female reproductive system organelles

A

ovaries
fallopian tubes
uterus
cervix
vagina

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5
Q

ovaries functions

A

produce developing eggs (oocytes) and hence mature eggs (ovum), produce hormones that regulate menstrual cycles and pregnancy

Ovaries open into peritoneal cavity

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6
Q

fimbriae function

A

Fimbriae (small hair-like projections) direct ovum into uterine tube/fallopian tube/oviduct

Successful fertilization normally occurs in the first third of the uterine/fallopian tube

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7
Q

male reproductive system organelles

A

testes
vas/ductus deferens
prostate
epididymis
urethra

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8
Q

semen production/composition

A

60% from seminal vesicle, 30% from prostate, 5% from testes, 5% from bulbourethral glands

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9
Q

what do seminal vesicles contribute to semen?

A

Prostaglandin, stimulate motility of sperm

Fructose, nutrient source for the sperm

Clotting agents (different from blood), coagulates semen after ejaculation

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10
Q

what does prostate gland contribute to semen?

A

Citric acid, used by sperm in ATP production (energy)

Proteolytic enzymes, eventually breakdown clotting agents

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11
Q

what do Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands contribute to semen?

A

Mucous (released pre-ejaculation), lubricates urethra and end of penis to prevent damage to sperm

Alkaline fluid neutralises acidity of urethra

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12
Q

what do testes contribute to semen?

A

sperm, fructose, testosterone, etc.

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13
Q

spermatogenesis location

A

seminiferous tubules in testes

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14
Q

cell types in testes

A

Germ cells: develop into spermatocytes

Sertoli cells: nourish developing germ cells

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15
Q

spermatogenesis steps

A
  1. mitosis
    Spermatogonium (germ cell, 2n) –> two diploid (2n) daughter cells –> may develop into a primary spermatocyte (2n)
  2. meiosis I
    Primary spermatocyte (2n) –> 2 haploid secondary spermatocytes (n)
  3. meiosis II
    Secondary spermatocytes (n) –> 4 haploid spermatids (n) –> sperm cells
  4. Spermatids (immature):
    Differentiation (occurs while nourished by sertoli cells) into a head, acrosome, midpiece and flagellum
    Released into lumen of seminiferous tubules to the epididymis for further maturation
    Acrosome develops receptors on its surface which allow the sperm to potentially attach to the oocyte that has the corresponding ligand
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16
Q

ovarian follicle components

A

oocyte + surrounding granulosa cells

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17
Q

oogenesis steps

A
  1. mitosis
    Primordial follicle (2n) –> maybe primary follicles (2n)
  2. meisos I - pause at prophase I
    Primary follicle (2n) –> primary oocyte (2n)
  3. growth
    Primary follicle (2n) containing primary oocyte, granulosa cell layers, zona pellucida –> secondary follicle (2n) containing PRIMARY oocyte
    occurs at puberty
  4. meiosis I complete + metaphase II
    primary oocyte in secondary follicle –> secondary oocyte + polar body
  5. fertilisation (if applicable) - meiosis II complete
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18
Q

male hormones before puberty

A

Testosterone and inhibin inhibit GnRH (secreted by immature hypothalamus)

LH and FSH secretion by the anterior pituitary gland

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19
Q

male hormones during puberty (12-14yrs)

A

Hypothalamus maturation reduces sensitivity to testosterone and inhibin

Enables GnRH secretion to increase, which triggers LH and FSH release

LH stimulates the Leydig cells in the testes to produce testosterone

FSH, in conjunction with testosterone, stimulates Sertoli cells in the testes to produce sperm

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20
Q

female hormones before puberty

A

Oestrogen and progesterone (ovaries) negative-feedback loop

Low GnRH (immature hypothalamus), low LH and FSH (anterior pituitary)

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21
Q

female hormones during puberty (11-13yrs)

A

Maturation of hypothalamus

High GnRH and thus high LH and FSH

Decrease in negative-feedback of oestrogen and progesterone

Oestrogen production increased by developing follicle

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22
Q

menstrual cycle phases

A

menses|follicular/proliferative|ovulation|luteal/secretory

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23
Q

menses

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A

Endometrium lining (uterus) is shed at the start of the follicular phase

24
Q

menstrual cycle - Follicular/Proliferative Stage

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A

Sustained increase in oestrogen stimulates GnRH secretion by hypothalamus

GnRH triggers LH and FSH secretion from anterior pituitary

FSH stimulates oestrogen production by developing follicles, results in positive feedback

Large increase in LH triggers ovulation (approx.day 14) which is the start of the secretory stage

3-30 ovarian follicles grow as a result of FSH secretion from the anterior pituitary gland but only the dominant follicle survives and produces oestrogen, inhibiting FSH to prevent other follicles from maturing

A single egg matures in the ovary

An oocyte (egg) develops inside a follicle within the ovary.

25
ovulation
Mature egg is released from follicle in the ovary at around 14 days in response to a spike in oestrogen from the FSH positive feedback
26
menstrual cycle - luteal/secretory stage
Endometrium lining of uterus thickens in preparation for implantation by a fertilised egg Corpus luteum produces progesterone (which stimulates growth of the uterus’ endometrial lining and causes fluid secretion (nutrients for embryo)) which peaks, and small amounts of oestrogen Negative feedback loop: High levels of oestrogen and progesterone inhibit hypothalamus and anterior pituitary and hence FSH and LH production to prevent other follicles from developing at the same time If egg is not fertilised, the cycle repeats (menstruation occurs) Endometrium sloughed Corpus luteum degenerates, reducing progesterone, which enables an increase in FSH If egg is fertilised, (7-8 days after ovulation) Endometrium becomes fully developed Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) production by the trophoblasts during implantation of the embryo which maintains corpus luteum
27
FSH function
Stimulates follicular growth in ovaries, leading to ovulation
28
FSH secretion
Secreted by the anterior pituitary gland (brain)
29
LH function
Stimulates oestrogen production in the ovaries, spike in oestrogen leading to ovulation
30
LH secretion
Secreted by the anterior pituitary gland (brain)
31
oestrogen secretion
Produced by ovaries in response to FSH and LH During pregnancy, it is produced by the corpus luteum and then the foetus/placenta
32
oestrogen function
Stimulates production of LH during ovulation During pregnancy, oestrogen levels increase and assist in organ development of the embryo, and promote breast tissue growth in preparation for breastfeeding
33
progesterone function
Stimulates growth of the uterus’ endometrial lining
34
progesterone secretion
Secreted by corpus luteum (empty follicle that has already released egg). After 6-10 weeks of pregnancy, it is produced by the placenta (likely due to distance)
35
what stimulates progesterone secretion?
Peak of oestrogen stimulates progesterone production
36
progesterone levels vs pregnancy
Progesterone levels rise during pregnancy to stimulate uterus growth and prevent uterine contractions before birth If pregnancy does not occur, progesterone levels decrease, menstruation occurs and the corpus luteum degenerates
37
GnRH production and function
Produced in hypothalamus and released into small blood vessels that carry the hormone to the pituitary gland, which produces LH or FSH depending on the menstrual phase
38
hCG (pregnancy only - produced by the placenta) function
Maintains the corpus luteum (so it continues to produce oestrogen and progesterone) and stops ovulation during pregnancy in order to prevent multiple pregnancies Secreted for the first 3 months of pregnancy hCG stimulates the male foetal gonads to secrete testosterone Over the counter pregnancy kits uses hCG’s presence in urine to confirm pregnancy as early as 7-9 days after fertilisation
39
Human placental lactogen (pregnancy only) function
Increases the mother’s blood glucose level but reduces what the mother uses for herself. The mother uses fatty acids instead
40
oxytocin (childbirth only)
positive feedback loop Cause contractions of uterine muscles Pressure of baby’s head against the opening uterus causes more oxytocin which causes more uterine contractions which pushes the baby towards the cervix even more Cycle continues until the baby is born
41
fertilisation requirements
Sperm: Capacitation in the uterus (enzymes) – stabilize acrosomal head and strengthen tail motility Egg: Secondary Oocyte released into uterine duct/fallopian tube
42
fertilised egg is called
Embryo from fertilization to week 7 Foetus from week 8 to birth
43
fertilisation process (day 0)
prevention of polyspermy Zygote: formed when pronuclei of sperm and egg fuse
44
polyspermy prevention mechanisms (2)
1. Fast block (Na+) diffuses into oocyte from extracellular space – triggered by the receptors on the sperm’s acrosome connecting with the oocyte’s ligands This thickens the zona pellucida 2. Slow block (Ca2+) release by endoplasmic reticulum (ER), initiates cell division (complete meiosis) and triggers cortical reaction
45
cleaveage (day 1-6)
Repeated mitotic division as the embryo migrates down the oviduct to the uterus Cells that will become the embryo are totipotent At day 6, blastocyst stage is reached (100 cells filled with fluid) after morula stage, "zona hatching" occurs: degeneration of zona pellucida, which is replaced with underlying trophoblast
46
zona pellucida
extracellular matrix that surrounds the plasma membrane of the egg cell
47
implantation (day 7-10)
blastocyst attaches to the uterus’ endometrium lining Two types of trophoblast (specialized cells that form the outer layer of a developing embryo, specifically within the blastocyst) 1. Produce Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) 2. Contribute to development of the placenta
48
Gastrulation (Day 12)
Inner cell mass changes → embryonic disc has 2 parts: amniotic sac and yolk sac (forms the gut) Primitive streak of the embryonic disc Provides the axis for developing the true embryo – enables differentiation Central axis triggers gastrulation (formation of germ cell layers)
49
Germ cell layers
Germ cell layers (the germ cells are pluripotent) Ectoderm - skin and nervous system Mesoderm - organs, muscle and bone Endoderm - digestive system
50
nerulation (day 18)
Folding of neural tube (part of the ectoderm) determines position of Grey matter (unmyelinated neurons and cell bodies) White matter (myelinated neurons) in the central nervous system Spinal cord White matter outside Grey matter inside Brain Grey matter outside White matter inside
51
Organogenesis (3-8 weeks until birth)
Depends on the development of different organs Week 3: brain and heart begins developing Week 7: 4 chambers of heart formed Week 9: kidneys begin developing
52
gestation period
280 Days, 40 weeks or 9 months (3 trimesters)
53
Elements of gestation
Umbilical cord from belly button to placenta Foetus’ head directed towards cervix which is starting to stretch Cervical plug in cervical canal to prevent amniotic fluid from leaking out
54
Parturition (childbirth) factors
Fetal hypothalamus releases ACTH – adrenocorticotropic hormone --> triggers adrenal cortical steroids to be produced and sent to the mother through the placenta --> an increase in estrogen and prostaglandin production and levels off progesterone synthesis This hormonal change is a positive feedback loop Stretching of uterus causes stimulation of sensory neurons which sends signals to the maternal hypothalamus which triggers the maternal posterior pituitary gland, causing the release of oxytocin
55
Example of an adrenal cortical steroid and its functions
cortisol 1. Matures organs (eg. lungs) surfactant production 2. Converts placental progesterone to oestrogen, which causes: Increase in uterine contraction Upregulation of oxytocin receptors in uterus Upregulation of prostaglandin synthesis, softening cervix, triggering contraction

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