Reproduction

Question 1

What pathology can occur with the scrotum

Answer 1

> Often dermatitis associated - E.g choriopitic mange in rams
Thermoregulatory failures - Leading to fertility issues
Neoplasia - Commonly MCT or haemangiosarcoma in dogs and papilloma in boars

Question 2

What pathology can occur with the tunica vaginalis

Answer 2

Thin Mesothelium around the testis that is continuous with the peritoneum. Therefore acitis can be associated with hydrocoele.
Can also get inflammation of the tunica vaginalis - Periorchitis

Question 3

What pathology can occur with the testis

Answer 3

> Intersex conditions

1. Male pseudohermaphroditism - External female genitalia and testes in the position of the ovary
2. True hermaphroditism - Animals have one testi and one ovary or combined

> Cryptorchidism - Testes retained between kidney & inguinal canal. Usually unilateral. Likely polygenic cause ( genetic + environment). Testes often small and fibrotic which increases risk of tumour formation.

> Testicular hypoplasia - Congenital or prepuberty (wont notice until after puberty). causes include: Zn deficiency, genetic, endocrine.

> Testicular atrophy - Occurs post puberty. Most common cause of infertility! Unilateral = Local and bilateral = systemic. causes include Increase in testicular temp, decrease in blood supply, hyperoestrogenism or vitamin A/zinc deficiency.

> Inflammation of testis - Very rare. 3 possible causes:

1. Haematogenous - E.g brucella abortus
2. Trauma - Dog bites, often associated with periorchitis & epididymitis.
3. Reflux orchitis - Extention of inflammation from the epididymis, prostate, urethra or bladder

*Loss of blood testes barrier will result in granulomatous reaction, because spermatozoa are haploid = seen as foreign

Question 4

What pathology can occur to the epididymis

Answer 4

Epididymitis
> Mainly an ascending infection from urogenital tract or accessory sex glands
> Enlargement often followed by abscess & granuloma formation
> Degree of testicular atrophy & degeneration due to pressure + heat
> Often a mixed infection involving coliforms, staphylococci and streptococci

Question 5

Describe the 3 types of testicular neoplasia that can occur

Answer 5

1. Leydig cell (interstitial) tumour - usually effects >8year. grossly appear as spherical, orange/greasy haemorrhagic masses. Bulge on cut surface. No enlargement of testes - Benign.
2. Sertoli cell tumour - usually effecting >6years, 20x increase in occurrence with cryptorchidism. Usually unilateral, with a firm lobulated discrete mass that causes testicular enlargement. Around 25% secrete oestrogen and can cause hyperoestrogenism ( causes attraction to other males, mammary swelling, symmetrical alopecia, atrophy of testis. 10% metastasise
3. Germ cell tumour - Seminoma, derivered from spermatogonia. Usually unilateral and grossly look like a soft cream mass, with a bulge on cut surface.
   * Teratoma - Effects young horses, tumour originates from totipotential primordial germ cells.

Question 6

Describe possible pathology to the accessory sex glands

Answer 6

> Hyperplasia of prostate - Occurs in old entire dogs. Causes constipation and/or urinary stasis. Castration causes atrophy as its hormone dependent

> Metaplasia of prostate - Glandular epithelium changes to squamous cell epithelium. Predisposing to inflammation.

> Prostatits - Often associated with hyperplasia. Mostly due to an ascending infection, invading the prostatic urethra. If left untreated can lead to peritonitis and septicaemia

> Neoplasia - Mostly a carcinoma occuring >10years. Castration not effective. Will cause constipation and urethral blockage. Possible locomotor issues if it compresses SC. High rate of local reoccurence or metastasis to LN’s, lung and bone

Question 7

What pathology can occur to the penis and prepuse

Answer 7

> Venereal transmitted diseases - Tritrochomonas foetus - Causes infertility, early embryonic death & metritits in cows. Diagnosed by sheath washings and culture

> Non inflammatory diseases:

• Direction deviations
• Hypoplasia with early catsrations
• Haematomas
• Paraphimasis - Inability to retract penis

> Inflammatory conditions:
- Balanitis - Glans penis inflammation
- Posthitis - Inflammation of prepuce
Can occur together - Balanoposthitis - Infectious cause in bull known as Bull infectious balanoposthitis

Question 8

What neoplasia is common on the penis

Answer 8

> Squamous cell carcioma - Most important in horses. Associated with equine papillomavirus type 2. Has a low grade of malignancy and will reoccur if not completely removed

> Fibropapilloma - Glans penis of the bull (1-2years) caused by bovine papillomaviruse type 1

> Transmissable venereal tumour - histocytic origin ( abnormal amount of chromosones). Prone to ulceration and secondary infections

Question 9

What could vulval discharge indicate (SA)

Answer 9

Age and & neutered status is key! also important to know stage of reproduction cycle.
> Mucopurelent white - Could indicate a vaginitis, open pyo or early metoestrus.
> Haemorrhagic - Proestrus/oestrus, cystitis, persistent follicle or ovarian/urethral neoplasia
> Greeny black - Parturition (normal) or dystocia
> Brown/red/black - Metritis

Question 10

What is vaganitis

Answer 10

> Occurs in juveniles (pre-puberty)
will resolve under the influence of oestrogen (1st cycle).
Due to bacterial contamination & excess vaginal secretions

Question 11

Describe the difference between open and closed pyometra and its cause

Answer 11

Usually presents withing 8 weeks of the last oestrus
> Open Pyometra - Mucopurolent vaginal discharge & mild-moderately enlarged uterus
> Closed - Closed cervix therefore no vaginal discharge associated. Uterus grossly enlarged and animal is systemically ill

Cause?
>Cystic endometrial hyperplasia provides good environment for bacterial proliferation
> Bacteria from faecal cotamination (E.coli), generally when cervix is one during oestrus
> Then during diestrus increase in progesterone causes immunosuppression & increased bacterial proliferation

Blood profile

• Neutrophilia with Left shift
• Acidosis
• Endotoxaemia
• Hypoglycaemia
• Anaemia
• Coagulopathies

Question 12

What is the most common vaginal neoplasia and how is it treated

Answer 12

Smooth muscle tumour of the vagina/vestibule - Leiomyoma or leiomyosarcoma. Slow growing benign tumours, can present with visible bulging at perineum, dysuria and dyschezia

Treatment includes surgical excision of mass + ovariohysterectomy

Question 13

What may be a cause of vaginal prolapse in SA and what breed is predisposed

Answer 13

Vaginal oedema due to excessive response of vaginal mucosa to oestrogens during the follicular phase.
Brachycephalic breeds predisposed, and tends to reoccur during subsequent oestrus’s

Question 14

How is dystocia determined in SA, what are the causes and how is it managed

Answer 14

Cause for concern when:
> Fetal fluids passed but no birth in 2-3 hours
> Weak and irregular straining for 2hours with no birth
> Last pup/kitten was 2-4 hours ago

Maternal causes include narrow birth canal, uterine abnormalities (torsion/rupture/malformation), or uterine inertai
> Primary inertia - Uterus fails to respond to foetal stress
> secondary inertia - Exhaustion of the myometrium or Secondary to obstruction of birth canal

Management: Only when theres no sign of obstruction
> Feathering the roof of the vaginal floor
> Repeated (30-40mins) of small oxytocin doses (0.2-0.4Iu/kg)
> Treatment of hypocalcaemia if present

Question 15

What is paraphimosis and when/how can it be treated

Answer 15

Non erect protruding penis (differs from priapism as this is a constant erection due to block in draining veins). Due to abnormally narrow preputial orifice, short prepuce or weak retractor muscle.

Treatment if penis becomes ischaemic, then a penilostomy + urethrostomy ( new urinating opening)

Question 16

What is hypospodias

Answer 16

Congenital abnormality causing incomplete formation of penile urethra

Question 17

What is phimosis

Answer 17

Inability to protrude penis beyond preputial orifice . surgical enlargement of preputial orifice possible

Question 18

What are the possible reasons for prostatic enlargement excluding neoplasia

Answer 18

> Benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH) - Normal ageing change in entire males, testosterone dependent. Castration cause involution withing 3-12 weeks.

> Prostatis/Prostatic abscessation - Common in dogs. associated with a purulent urethral discharge, a systemically ill patient, Dysuric (painful urination). Need to drain (syringe + 3 way tap) to avoid septic peritonitis

> Prostatic (inside body of prostate) & para prostatic (outside body) cysts - Generally an incidental finding to UTI patient thats more systemically ill than expected. Biopsy should be taken to rule out neoplasia

Question 19

What are typical properties of prostatic neoplasia, how is it diagnosed and how is it treated

Answer 19

More common in neutered dogs. Common types are adenocarcinoma and transition cell carcinoma
Tend to be locally invasive and metastatic (commonly bone formation on the wing of ileum)
Clinical signs include dysuria, pain, weight loss & dyschezia.
Diagnosis based on ultrasound guided biopsy - poor prognosis
Treatment includes - Urethral stent, NSAIDS, cystostomy tube

Question 20

How can you Induce ovulation in seasonally anoestrus ewes or anovulatory post partum cow

Answer 20

> Cow - Use a controlled internal drug release (CIDR) for 12 days, then on the day of removal give 500iu of eCG to increase LH pulse frequency.

> Ewe - Progesterone sponge for 10-12d then 500iu injection of eCG. Present to rams 24 hours later.

Question 21

How can you induce puberty in gilts

Answer 21

Intramuscular injections of PMSG + hCG at 6/7 months (100kg). Has no effect on LH/GnRH, binds directly to granulosa cells acting like LH/FSH

Question 22

Give 3 ways in which oestrus can be synchronized

Answer 22

1. PGF2a - Ideally injection at day 10 of oestrus cycle, CL is refractory up to day 6, therefore 2 injections are given 10-11d apart to ensure it meets a responsive CL.
2. ‘Ovsynch’ - Give GnRH to synchronise a new LH wave. 7days later give PGF2a causing luteolysis. 2nd GnRH dose given 2 days after Prostaglandins, synchronizing LH surge in all animals, can be AI’d in 24 hours.
3. Use CIDR & remove at day 12 with a PGF2a dose.

Question 23

In cows, what are the treatment options for

1. luteal cysts
2. Follicular cysts
3. pyometra

Answer 23

1. Luteal cysts - Prostaglandins
2. follicular cysts - GnRH
3. Pyometra - Prevents PGF2a causing a persistent CL. Therefore intramuscular PGF2a

Question 24

How can parturition be induced in Large animals

Answer 24

Intramuscular injection of dexamethasone - parturition 3-5 days later

Question 25

How can you try to increase number of gametes in sheep

Answer 25

Aim to decrease atresia or increase follicular recruitment. > eCG is a recombinant FSH = superovulation > Also can flush, so increase plane of nutrition which causes and increase in hepatic portal circulation and increase in metabolisation of steroid hormones. Leads to a decrease in eostrogen and therefore no negative feedback on FSH.

Question 26

Describe 3 ways in which immunology is used to control reproduction in LA

Answer 26

> Immunisation against androstendione - Pre cursor to oestrogen. Therefore removes negative feedback on hypo-pituitary causing an increase in FSH, increase in recruitment and follicles and therefore an increase in ovulation rate > Immunisation against GnRH - Inhibits LH and FSH production causing a decrease in testicular size and function. Practised to help comntrol aggression and reduce male associatyed odours > Spayvac - Ig's bind to ZP, preventing sperm binding

Question 27

How can eostrus be controlled in the bitch

Answer 27

> Synthetic prostagen - Medroxyl progesterone acetate. Side effects include increase growth hormone (can cause acromegaly), Diabetes melitus and mammary tumours > Proligestone - Synthetic prostagen that is stongly anti-gonadotrophic, weakly prostagenic and antioestrogenic (doesn't have associated side effects of medroxyl progesterone acetate, control vulval swelling and bleeding) > Testosterone - Can give orally but effects fertility & causes protrusion of the clitoris and enlarged vulva

Question 28

What are signs of clinical pseudopregnancy in the bitch and how is it treated

Answer 28

> Clinical signs - Weight gain, mammary development & behavioural changes. Also a associated rise in prolactin > Treatment - synthetic prostagens keep progesterone high and suppress prolactin. Can also use a dopamine agonist which will inhibit prolactin, however this can induce vomiting.

Question 29

How is eostrus controlled in the queen

Answer 29

> Progesterone can be given as soon as calling starts > hCG - Induce ovulation & delay subsequent calling because queen goes through pseudopregnancy

Question 30

What are the possible the reasons for no observed oestrus?

Answer 30

> Congenital abnormalities such as ovarian aplasia or hypoplasia > Ovarian cysts > Cyclical ovarian activity but no behavioural signs (silent heat ) > Signs of oestrus not detected due to staffing issues > Persistent CL (+ pyometra?) * Should display signs of oestrus every 18-24days or 4-6 weeks post partum

Question 31

What is a free martin cow

Answer 31

Hermaphrodite or imperfect sterile female calf who was a twin with a male (share same chorioallantoic sac). Hormone from male calf effected development of female calf. Diagnosed by the history of twin birth with a male + short vagina (stick a probe in and doesn't go far)

Question 32

What reason may a cow be in anoestrus

Answer 32

> Increase in milk yield such that animal doesnt have enough energy to cycle > Decrease in BCS > Stress e.g lameness > Inadequate nutrition - Cause a decrease in IGF-1 = decreased GnRH = Decreased LH/FSH = Decreased ovarian function * To treat wait until milk yields begin to decrease so cow can go back into a positive energy balance and increase he amount of concentrates - This can be accompanied by Controlled internal drug release (CIDR)

Question 33

What is the size of a normal follicle and what are the different types of cysts in cattle and how are they treated

Answer 33

A normal follicle is no bigger than 1.5-2cm. CL can become vacuolated which is normal. > True follicular cyst - Thin walled & >2.5cm in diameter. Secrete oestrogen - Give GnRH = high amount of LH = luteinisation > Luteal cyst - Thick walled (>3mm) and diamater of 2.5cm. Progesterone secreting - Treat with PGF2a > Thin walled functionally undifferentiated cysts are inactive.

Question 34

Why do cows develop cystic ovaries?

Answer 34

Ovaries become cystic when theres anovulation of mature follicles (persists for 10d in absence of CL) causing degeneration of granulosa cell layer and cessation of normal cyclic activity Failure of pre-ovulatory LH surge (generally post partum) due to: > Lack of hypothalmic sensitivity to oestrogen > Failure of GnRH release > Decrease in LH receptors on granulosa cysts > Decrease in insulin & IGF-1 due to negative energy balance. Causes and increase in NEFA's (non essential fatty acids) which impair follicular proliferation

Question 35

What heat detection aids can be used for cattle

Answer 35

> Rub marks over the base of the tail > KaMaR heat mount detector - Turn red when mounted > Estrotrect - Turn red when mounted

Question 36

What are predisposing factors for endometritis in cattle and what is the treatment

Answer 36

``` > Retained foetal membranes > Dystocia > Hygiene > Early or delayed return to oestrus Treatment dependant on if CL present or not. If present give PGF2a, if not give intrauterine cephalosporin ```

Question 37

What is the threshold in which abortion needs to be investigated and what reasons should you suspect

Answer 37

``` IF rate of abortion >5% needs to be investigated Infectious agents: > Campylobacter > BVDV > Listeria > Neospora > Salmonella dubline > Shmallenburg ``` ``` Non infectious: > Endocrine deficiency > Toxic substances > Heat stress > Dystocia > Misuse of corticosteroid and prostaglandins ```

Question 38

What are the reproductive targets for: Calving index, calving to first service interval, Calving tot conception interval and conception rate at 1st service and all services. Also when at what values should there be intervention

Answer 38

> Calving index: Aim for 365d, intervention at >380d > Calving to first service: Aim for 65d, intervention at >75d > Calving to conception interval: 85d, intervention at >95d > Conception rate: 1st service - Aim for 60%, intervention at <55% all services - Aim for 55%, intervention at <50%

Question 39

What is pseudopregnancy in the goat

Answer 39

Hydrometra (accumulation of aseptic fluid in uterus) occurs in the goat due to prolonged exposure to progesterone from a persistent CL. Without treatment abdomen become distended giving the appearance of pregnancy, also accompanied by mammary gland development. Treated with PGF2a

Question 40

Why should replacement rate of ewes not exceed 20%

Answer 40

Usually replacement ewes are ewe lambs. They have lower ovulation rates which in turn will compromise the overall lambing percentage.

Question 41

What are the reasons for early embryonic death in ewes

Answer 41

> Asynchrony between embryonic development and timing of P4 rise. E.g flushing soon after tupping causes a decrease in P4. > Age - Uterine environment not ideal for embryonic growth in ewe lambs > Mineral deficiency - Selenim or iodine > Infectious - Toxoplasma or border disease virus

Question 42

What are the reasons for late foetal death in ewes and sheep

Answer 42

> Overfeeding in early pregnancy causes placental insufficiency and underfeeding late in pregnancy causes a drop in BCS (most foetal development occurs in final trimester) > Infectious - Campylobacter (ewes only), toxoplasma & Chlamydophilia abortus

Question 43

Give an example of a bacterial venereal disease of horses and the clinical signs expected

Answer 43

Contagious equine metritits - Notifiable disease. Vaginal discharge 2 days after mating. Early return to oestrus (less than 15d). Can also be no clinical signs

Question 44

Describe clinical signs of equine viral arteritis and how its diagnosed

Answer 44

Equine viral arteritis is a notifiable disease, which must have a pre-vaccinated blood test results in passport. > Presents as brick red conjunctivitis, fever, depression and causes abortion by vasculitis. > Males can become carriers (in accessory sex glands) > Test blood for antibodies - can also do a nasopharyngeal swab

Question 45

Describe clinical signs of equine herpes virus -1 and how it its diagnosed

Answer 45

> Respiratory infection - Nasal discharge, commonly in weaning/yearlings > Causes abortion - therefore segregate breeding mares > Can also cause ataxia and paralysis > diagnosed by nasopharyngeal swab and uncoagulated blood sample for the use of PCR * Can vaccinate against but outbreaks have been reported even with vaccine

Question 46

What is the cause of equine coital exanthema and what are the clinical signs

Answer 46

Caused by equine herpes virus -3. Cause the formation of small (2mm) multiple nodules on penis, vulval area. These nodules develop in vesicles/pustules which eventually burst. Prone to secondary bacterial infection. Usually recover within 10-14d. Can give antibiotics to prevent secondary infection

Question 47

What is equine infectious anaemia

Answer 47

Notifiable lentivirus in horses. Spread by stable/horse flies. Causes fever, anaemia, oedema and weight loss. Once infected, become carrier for life. in acute cases can die suddenly. Diagnosed by Elisa - Cogging test - Checks for Ig's against equine infectious anaemia

Question 48

When is it appropriate to tease a mare and what are the signs displayed in oestrus and diestrus

Answer 48

Prevents injury to the stallion and allows for monitoring of the mares cyclic activity. Should tease daily during oestrus and mon-wed-fri during diestrus. > oestrus behaviour - Ears forwards, everting clit, tail held high and urinating > diestrus behaviour - Violent, ears back, screaming and tail clamped down

Question 49

When should a mare be mated and when should you ultrasound after

Answer 49

> Using ultrasound of ovaries until ovulation is predicted. usually ovulate at night, aim to mate the day of ovulation. Aim for one mating a oestrus cycle, this minimizes uterine challenge and minimizes amount of ejaculate from stallion > 48 hours after mating ultrasound looking for corpus haemorhagicum. if ovulation hasn't occurred, repeat mating. > mares are at risk of post breeding endometritis. Therefore if excessive uterine fluid following mating, flush uterus with 3L saline and give ceftiofur.

Question 50

What are the 3 stages of labour for a mare

Answer 50

> 1st stage - Digging & nest making. Then shows signs of colic, small amounts of urine. Lasts minutes to 5 hours > 2nd stage - Rupture of the chorioallantoic membrane. Violent abdominal straining. Umbilical cord delivers up to 2.5L of blood after expulsion, once broken dress with antiseptic. Lasts 15-30 minutes > 3rd stage - Within an hour of foetal expulsion, placental expulsion. Dont pull it, let it fall out. Check placenta, mirror image of the uterus. Should last less than 2-3 hours

Question 51

What is perinatal asphyxia syndrome

Answer 51

Condition in new born foals thought to be secondary to decreased oxygen delivery to vital organs during, before or shortly after birth. CNS signs are varied, from depression to coma. GIT manifestation include meconium retention, intolerance to oral feeding or diarrhoea.

Question 52

What tests should be conducted on a new born foal & what is given days 1-3 after birth.

Answer 52

Foal is expected to suckled between the first 1-2 hours and should be suckling regularly therefore after. Blood tests can be done to monitor IgG levels, if they are low, hyperimmune plasma transfusion and antibiotics given. > Day 1 - Physical exam, tetanus antitoxin and TMPS given > Day 2 - Physical exam, blood samples for hematology and inflammatory protein and IgG > Day 3 - Physical exam and TMPS * TMPS = Trimethoprim - sulphur combinates

Question 53

What does the term puerperium mean

Answer 53

Period after parturition when reproductive tract returns to its non pregnancy state allowing female to conceive again

Question 54

Explain how the endometrium is regenerated after parturition

Answer 54

> Uterine curuncles undergo degenerative changed due to vasoconstriction = ishaemia. Necrotic material is expelled by uterine contractions in 2-9 days (known as iochial discharge - great medium for bacteria so needs to be expelled!) > Bacteria eliminated by migrating leucocytes + physical expulsion. by 5 weeks 50% of uterine lumen sterile, by 8-9 weeks the uterine lumen should be sterile

Question 55

When is cyclic activity resumed post partum in cow

Answer 55

> Initially pituitary is refractory to GnRH due to negative feedback from P4 > 7d after calving the first FSH rise occurs allowing follicular growth > If follicle grows enough to secrete sufficient E2 then positive feedback = ovulation = silent heat (short luteal phase) > If the follicle fails to secrete enough E2, either involution occurs or follicle becomes cystic

Question 56

Why does dystocia increase the risk of puerperium issues

Answer 56

Dystocia cause physical deformity to the vulva/cervix and causes tissue damage. Also intervention introduces a load of pathogens into the reproductive tract *25-40% increase in the risk of retained foetal membranes

Question 57

What are the risk factors for a prolapsed uterus

Answer 57

> Usually occurs 24 hours post parturition > Increased incidence when theres prolonged parturition, decreased uterine tone ( due to hypocalcaemia = flaccid uterus) and increased abdominal straining. > Increased the calving to conception rate > Treatment includes injection of calcium borogluconate, epidural, clean and invert, antibiotics and NSAIDS

Question 58

What is puereperal metritis and how is it treated

Answer 58

> System illness which usually follows severe dystocia, uterine intertia, premature calving or retained foetal membranes > Usually occurs 10-14d post partum > Clinical signs include a purulent discharge, elevated temperature, dull, innapetent and tachypnoea. > Treatment includes Fluids, NSAID (flunixin), Cephalosporins, uterine lavage.

Question 59

How does pyometra occur in the cow and why must you differentiate it from pregnancy

Answer 59

> Accumulation of purulent material in the uterus in the presence of a persistent corpus luteum > Usually a sequel to chronic endometritis > Cervix is closed > Absence of cyclicity - no ill health > Can be confused with pregnancy. If its a pregnancy and pyometra diagnosed, the PGF2a will cause reabsorption. > Differentiate by seeing speckled echotexture instead of black, thicker uterine wall and no slipping of allantochorion

Question 60

What anaesthesia options are there for a cesarean in a cow

Answer 60

> Inverted L block - Line from the last rib meets transverse process of vertabrae > Line block > Proximal paravertebral block - Aim to block L1, L2, L3 > Epidural

Question 61

Whats the MRP in sows

Answer 61

Oestrogen. Redirects prostaglandins into the lumen. A minimum of 6 embryos required to have sufficient MRP

Question 62

How long after weaning does a sow go into oestrus

Answer 62

Usually a sow will lactate for 3-4 weeks then weaning occurs. 4-7 d post weaning the sow will go into oestrus Oestrus then last up to 72 hours

Question 63

What is characteristic of porcine parvovirus

Answer 63

Rarely causes abortion. Sows usually goes to full term given birth to a mixture of small mummified foetuses, full grown piglets, still borns and weak piglets. Dependent on the spread of the virus through the uterus, Oronasal/venereal transmission. If sow not pregnant will become immune. So only naive animals at risk. Ideally vaccinate sows 8 weeks before mating

Question 64

What are the non infectious causes of sow abortion

Answer 64

``` > Hygiene > Season (heat stress) > Genetic factors > Nutrition (vit E & A deficiency) > Toxic agents - Teratogens and mycotoxins ```

Question 65

What are the possible neoplasia's of the female non pregnant reproductive tract

Answer 65

> Germ cell - Dysgerminoma - smooth surface, benign - Teratoma - Mixed tissues (bone/hair) & usually benign > Stromal tumours - Granulosa - theca cell tumour - Can produce androgens > Epithelial - cyst adenoma/carcinoma. Often bilateral and spreads by transcoelamic spread ( metastasis across body cavity)

Question 66

What is endometrial hyperplasia

Answer 66

Under the influence of progesterone, uterine endometrium is very sensitive and easily distended. Predisposes to pyometra. Usually 3-8 weeks after oestrus.

Question 67

Whats the difference between endometritis and metritits

Answer 67

> Endometritis - Inflammation of endometrium only. Usually associated post partum after dystocia. Usually self limiting > Metritis - Inflammation of all layers of uterine wall. Potentially life threatening due to septicaemia. edematous friable uterine wall.

Question 68

What is mummification

Answer 68

No bacterial causes. No odour and absorption of placental and foetal fluids. Causes: > Twinning mare > Viral (BVDV, herpes virus (canine), Parvo (sow) and protozoan (toxoplasmosis) > Placental insufficiency

Question 69

What is maceration

Answer 69

Foetus becomes liquified. Indicates the presence of a bacterial uterine infection. > common with venereal infection such as campylobacter foetus venerilis and trichomonas foestus > Expulsion of the foetus with purulent exudate

Question 70

When does an abortion in a cow need to be reported

Answer 70

Any abortion after 271d needs to be reported to the AHPA so it can be investigated for brucella

Question 71

Whats the major infectious agents causing abortion in sheep

Answer 71

> Toxoplasmosis > Campylobacter > Chlamydia

Question 72

How are suspected viral infections diagnosed in reproduction problems

Answer 72

> Detection of the Virus by PCR or antigen ELISA. If the sample is not fresh can cause problems, also virus can lose infectivitiy > Detection of Ig - Detection in foetal fluids or serum of the dam. Problems if animal hasnt already seroconverted.

Question 73

What are the two major viruses effecting the horse genital tract

Answer 73

Equine herpes virus-1 > Horse is latently infected, reactivated in times of stress > Causes abortion in last trimester. Foetus has lung oedema and multifocal lesions on the lung and liver. > Diagnose by post mortem of foetus and placenta - PCR > Can vaccinate horses (EHV - 1 and EHV - 2), also isolate all mares in the last trimester Equine arteritis virus - Notifiable > Entry via respiratory system or semen. > Infects macrophages and endothelial cells causing arteritis > Clinical signs include swelling around legs, Conjunctivitis, > Diagnose by PCR of foetal fluids > Stallion can intermittently shed, no persistence in mare unlike EHV > Stallions should be vaccinated

Question 74

Describe 4 reproductive viral diseases in cattle

Answer 74

BVDV > Shed in respiratory secretions, faeces and semen. > Infection in first trimester (0-110d) - Death of foetus or the birth of a persistently infected calf > Infection in the 2nd trimester (110-190d) - Results in abortion/mummification or congenital abnormalities > Infection in the 3rd trimester (190+d) - Results in abortion, still birth, birth of a weak or normal calf > Diagnose by PCR of thymus/spleen. Bovine herpes virus-1 > Predominately a respiratory infection, causing tachypnoea, dyspnoea and serous nasal discharge. Causes abortion ( at 4-8months) if susceptible cow infected during pregnancy - Causes necrosis of foetal liver/lung > Diganosed by PCR of foetal tissues. Serology may not be useful as animal can be latently infected Schmallenberg > Transmitted by culicoides > Causes neonatal cerebellar hypoplasia and twisted joints > Diagnosis by PCR and foetal serology Bluetongue - notifiable > Midge transmission > Pyrexic abortion

Question 75

What viral infections of the reproductive system of the pig are there

Answer 75

Porcine reproductive & respiratory syndrome > Also known as blue ear disease. Causes immunosuppression and late abortions due to arteritis of umbilical vessels. > Piglets develop a thumping respiratory pattern > Diagnosis via PCR of lymphoid tissue > Rapidly mutates causing many strains, therefore cant vaccinate. ``` Porcine parvovirus > Reproductive failure but not abortion, more often mummification. > Virus infects rapidly dividing cells > Diagnose by PCR of liver > Sow can be vaccinated ``` Swine influenza - Type A influenza > Pyrexia (>41degrees) causes abortion Aujeszkys disease - notifiable > Entry via repiratory tract. Caused by a herpes virus > Causes coughing, CNS signs and increased piglet mortality Classical swine fever - notifiable > Haemorrhagic skin lesion and fever. increased mortality of piglets > indistinguishable from african swine fever, also notifiable

Question 76

What reproductive viral infection affects dogs

Answer 76

Canine herpes virus-1 - 'fading puppy syndrome' > Infection at birth > Poor immune system and poor body temp tefularion allowing infection to establish > causes organ necrosis leading to kidney haemorrhage > Diagnosis via histopatholgy + PCR > Vaccine available for bitches

Question 77

What reproductive viral infection effects cats

Answer 77

Feline leukaemia virus > Can cross placenta and cause reproductive failure Feline parvovirus > Leads to reproductive failure or cerebellar hypoplasia > Diagnosis by PCR of neurological tissue of foetus > Vaccine available

Question 78

Why are pregnancy diagnosis done in dairy cows and when are they done

Answer 78

> Done 40 days after service (30d in sheep) Why? - Knowing dates allows for better management of drying off period (60d before calving) - Identify non pregnant animals - Certify pregnant animals when selling - Know amount of foetuses for accurate feeding

Question 79

How are PD's done in dairy cows

Answer 79

Generally rectal palpatation or trans-rectal ultrasonagrophy Usually based on the filling of the uterine horns with fluid: > 6 weeks diamater of wrist > 7 weeks diameter of elbow > 8 weeks diameter of shoulder > 9 weeks diameter of neck > 10 weeks diameter of head Can also do the slip test after 33d. If theres two slips on uterine horn then indicates pregnancy - one for uterine horn and second for chorioallantoic membrane. *On ultrasound, if Theres white specs in fluid indicates pus

Question 80

Is it possible to sex on ultrasound in dairy cows

Answer 80

Yes at 55-70 days. determined by location of genital tubercle > If its towards umbilicus = male > If its towards tail = female

Question 81

What bacterial causes of abortion are there in cows

Answer 81

> Leptospira hardjo - Major cause of abortion also causing infertility and decreased milk yield. Also zoonotic. Widespread with up to 77% of herds effected > Bacillus licheniform - Spore formive gram -ve rod. sporadic abortion > Brucella abortus - Zoonotic disease causing undulant fever in humans. Causes granulomatous lesions which migrate to the placenta and cause placentitis. Diagnosis by kasters stain ( weakened zn stain, brucella stains pink). Can also do a brucella milk ring test - bulk tank sample mixed with antigen and look for haemaglutination. > Salmonella dublin - Survive in macrophages, then lyse the cell and cause septacaemia > Mycotic - Aspargillus. usually from mouldy feed. Stain with PAS stain > Campylobacter fetus subspecies venerealis - Lifelong aysmptomatic infection. Causes catarrhal inflammation of genital tract resulting in endometritis = abortion.

Question 82

What are the main bacterial causes of abortion in sheep

Answer 82

Chalmydia and toxoplasma account for 50% of abortions > Chlamydophilia abortus - Obligate intracellular pathogen. Exists as a reticulate body ( non infectious but metabolically active) within cell, multiplying by binary fission. then secreted by cell in a vacuole and become an elementary body ( infectious and not metabolically active). Farmers often stop vaccinating as they get a lack of cases then re-emerges. Diagnosed by kosters stain > Campylobacter fetus sup species fetus - Accounts for 10% of abortions. Shed in faeces and ingested causing a bacteraemia.

Question 83

What are the bacterial causes of pyometra and endometritis in the dog

Answer 83

E.coli and beta-haemolytic streptococci (S.zooepidemicus & S.canis)

Question 84

What are the possible bacterial causes of abortion in the mare

Answer 84

> S.zooepidemicus > CEM - Caused by taylorella equigenitalis. causes metritis and discharge > Metritis can also be caused by klebserella pneumoniae