Research EXAM #3

Question 1

Type 1 vs. Type 2 error

Answer 1

Type I — false (+) if investigator rejects null hypothesis that is actually true in the population
Type II — false (-) if investigator fails to reject a null hypothesis that is actually false in the population

Question 2

Statistical tests to improve validity

Answer 2

Determine probability of errors:​

Type I​

Type II​

Calculate and report Effect Size​

Ensure data meets the basic assumptions of the statistical tests​

Question 3

Empirical literature

Answer 3

this type of literature is based on experiences or observations and displays
how theories apply to individual behavior or observation. E.g. if a medication is going to reduce
BP, then you hypothesize that because the medication reduces BP in will lower the risks for
heart attacks. This notion is based on observation rather than theory

Question 4

Seminal literature

Answer 4

foundational and classic literature (think o fit as original, first creation of
the concept)

Question 5

Construct variable

Answer 5

in simple terms it refers to an explanatory variable that cannot be directly
observed. We may be able to observe its effect but not a directly observe it. A good example is
gravity, we know a lot about what gravity does and its effect but we cannot directly see or
observe gravity. So gravity maybe considered a construct variable. Anxiety is another construct
variable. We can observe the outcomes of anxiety such as tension, stress, anger etc.

Question 6

Correlational (relationship) design

Answer 6

demonstrates a relationship between the variables it may
be a positive relationship or negative relationship

Question 7

Common Types of Statistical Tests (Inferential tests)

Answer 7

1. Independent t-tests: tests for differences in the means between 2 groups
2. Paired t-tests: tests for differences between paired measurements e.g. pretest before
   the intervention and post-test after the intervention

Question 8

Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

Answer 8

F-test - is a statistical test used in experimental or quasi-
experimental research (quantitative). Test is applicable when measuring the means between 2
or more study groups. Only measures one dependent variable. Example in a diabetic study one
group receives oral medication, one group is diet controlled, one group is placebo.

Question 9

Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA)

Answer 9

a statistical test used when measuring 2 or
more dependent variables (outcomes) for the research
– e.g does music therapy and relaxation techniques affect anxiety and panic attacks?​

Question 10

ANOVA vs. MANOVA are

Answer 10

statistical tests

Question 11

What is the purpose of a chi-square test?

Answer 11

helps detect the relationship between 2 variables but does not demonstrate
the depth or direction of the relationship between the variables

Question 12

Correlational coefficient (r)

Answer 12

measures correlation (relationship) between 2 variables.

Question 13

External validity

Answer 13

Generalize the findings from a research study to other populations, places, situations
— It is SO good that nothing needs to change —> generalization = QUANTitative

Question 14

Why is validity important in search?

Answer 14

It helps to measure what it is supposed to measure

Question 15

Internal validity

Answer 15

Ensures the intervention worked and the outcome was not based on other causes
—The confidence experimental treatment/condition has made a difference and rival explanations were systemically ruled out through study design and control
— IV caused the outcome (DV)

Question 16

Generalization is synoymous with ____.
Transferability is synonymous with ____.

Answer 16

QUANTitative = generalization
QUALitative = transferability

Question 17

Instrumentation

Answer 17

The instrument or data collection process has changed
— e.g. operative error: post-partum tool and how explained vs. someone who is not well-informed, may not use the tool/instrument to the best of its abilities

Question 18

Describe some biases that can be interjected into a research study

Answer 18

— Personal
— Selection
— Subject

Question 19

Factors that can interfere with internal validity

Answer 19

– Historical threats
– Maturation
– Testing
– Instrumentation
– Consent effect
– Treatment effect
– Hawthorne effect
– Multiple-treatment effect
– Subject selection
– Attrition

Question 20

Describe a historical threat

Answer 20

subjects behave in a certain manner because of their exposure to events outside the experiment
– e.g. the occurrence of an actual earthquake during a field study of the effects of training in earthquake preparedness

Question 21

Bias in research

Answer 21

Sampling error:​

A number that demonstrates the difference in the results between the sample and the population it was drawn from​

Treatment effects:​

A threat to internal validity because the subjects may perform differently​

Measurement error:​

Difference between actual attribute (true score) and the amount of attribute that was represented (observed score)​

Question 22

Maturation related to internal validity

Answer 22

Too much time has passed with long study
Changes in the research subjects not due to the intervention, because time has passed

— e.g. deterioration of physical characteristics: vision, hearing, taste, memory
— e.g. pain relief w/ cancer patient disease is maturing (stage I —> stage III)

Question 23

Testing related to internal validty

Answer 23

Familiarity of the research subject w/ testing, especially retesting occurs
— e.g. pre-test then take post-test; knowledge became enhanced

Question 24

Consent effect

Answer 24

Threat to internal validity occurs. Because the subject who consents to student may differ from those who do not in way that affects outcome of the study
— e.g. change your mind to study after finding out you’re going to be recorded therefore change their mindset/thoughts

Question 25

Treatment effect

Answer 25

Subject may perform differently b/c they know they are being in a study therefore act the way that looks good — e.g. masks their behavior b/c if in an anger study, you will hide that anger

Question 26

How to control extraneous variables

Answer 26

-- Eliminate the threat -- Control the threat -- Account for the threat or write-up

Question 27

Hawthorne effect

Answer 27

Seen as person of power and subject takes on subordinate role; research subjects change their behavior in a study because they are aware of being under observation — e.g. You are researching the smoking rates among bank employees as part of a smoking cessation program. You collect your data by watching the employees during their work breaks. If employees are aware that you are observing them, this can affect your study's results

Question 28

Multiple-treatment effect

Answer 28

An inability to isolate the effects of treatments because multiple treatments are being used at the same timeA

Question 29

Subject selection/Subject effects (bias)

Answer 29

A threat to internal validity due to introduction of bias through selection or composition of comparing groups assignment of research subjects to groups in a bias manner, not random - e.g. Health studies that recruit participants directly from clinics miss all the cases who don’t attend those clinics or seek care during the study.

Question 30

Attrition

Answer 30

Loss of research subjects during the study (possibly due to how long the study is); drop out of study — e.g. children from troubled families increase the likelihood to drop out/move away in the middle of school year — e.g. yoga education vs. paper education over 8 weeks —> only 1 showed up/completed the paper education study vs. everyone that completed the yoga education

Question 31

What factors can affect *external* validity?

Answer 31

-- Population -- Ecological -- Time & historical effects -- Novelty -- Experimenter effect

Question 32

Threats to external validity

Answer 32

— Selection effects — Time — History — Novelty effects — Experimenter effects

Question 33

Threats to trustworthiness in QUALitative research

Answer 33

— Hawthorne effect — Selection effects — Historical effects — Researcher bias

Question 34

Researcher bias

Answer 34

The primary investigator (PI) poses their thoughts into the study

Question 35

Population validity

Answer 35

Can the findings be generalized from the sample to a larger group? The capacity to confidently generalize the results of a study from one group of subjects to another population group — e.g. can the findings of patients from one medical center be generalized to patients in an entire health care system?

Question 36

Ecological validity

Answer 36

*external validity* Findings can be generalized and applied to other settings Can findings be generalized from one set of environmental conditions to another? — e.g. Can the findings be generalized from a medical-surgical unit to a long-term unit.

Question 37

Time & historical effects r/t external validity

Answer 37

Threats to external validity

Question 38

Novelty effect

Answer 38

*threat to external validity* results based on the newness of the treatment rather than actual procedure - hard to decipher what caused the outcome Occurs when subject reacts to something b/c its novel/new, rather than actual treatment or intervention itself — e.g.

Question 39

Experimenter effect

Answer 39

*threat to external validity* Results may reflect personal biases of the researcher Interaction w/ researcher conducting the3 study or applying intervention — e.g.

Question 40

These improve validity of qualitative research

Answer 40

-- Verbatim accounts -- Triangulation -- Bracketing -- Audit trials -- Member checking

Question 41

Verbatim accounts

Answer 41

“Word-for-word” statement of a response *NOTE: Improves validity of QUALitative research*

Question 42

Triangulation

Answer 42

A means of enhancing credibility by cross-checking information and conclusions using multiple data sources using multiple methods or researching to ensure credibility — The study, phenomenon using multiple theories/perspectives to help with data *NOTE: improve validity of QUALitative research*

Question 43

Bracketing

Answer 43

A researcher separates own experiences from what is being observed in the study, to reduce bias A method of limiting the effects of researcher bias and setting them aside by demonstrating awareness of potential suppression of research *NOTE: improve validity of QUALitative research*

Question 44

Audit trials

Answer 44

establish findings are based on participant’s responses not researcher

Question 45

Member checking

Answer 45

data is sent back to participants to check for accuracy Having participants review and comment on accuracy of transcripts, interpretation or conclusions — e.g.

Question 46

What is the purpose of descriptive research?

Answer 46

Actively describes population, situation, or phenomenon — the what, when, where, why, how can be an answer

Question 47

Name some descriptive type of research studies

Answer 47

— Case reports — Case — Cross-section — Sectional — Ecological study

Question 48

Longitudinal study

Answer 48

Studies conducted by following subjects over a period of time w/ data collection occurring at prescribed intervals

Question 49

Cross-sectional study

Answer 49

Study conducted by looking at single phenomenon across multiple populations at a single point in time w/ no follow-up design -- e.g. a medical study examining the prevalence of cancer amongst a defined population. The researcher can evaluate people of different ages, ethnicities, geographical locations, and social backgrounds.

Question 50

Case study

Answer 50

Exploration of single unit of study such as person/family group or community

Question 51

Single-subject

Answer 51

Uses a single case/subject in which baseline data are collected, an intervention is applied, and responses are tracked over time

Question 52

Epidemiology

Answer 52

Branch of medicine dealing w/ incidence, distribution, possible control of diseases + other factors r/t health

Question 53

Pilot study

Answer 53

“Feasibility” = small-scale preliminary study — e.g. “live & learn”/assess planned study’s cost, time, efficiency, accuracy on smaller scale; see if there are any problems — make sure instrument is gathering data that you need to

Question 54

Name the different types of methodology used in research

Answer 54

1) Simple 2) Systematic 3) Stratified 4) Cluster

Question 55

Difference b/w experimental design and quasi-experimental design

Question 56

Experimentation

Answer 56

Use scientific methods to establish the **cause and effect** relationships among a group of variables that make up a study — e.g. clinical trial where participants placed in control and treatment groups —> determine the degree which interventions in the treatment group is effective or not

Question 57

Quasi-experimental

Answer 57

Attempts to establish cause-effect relationships among groups of variables that make up a study — QUANTitative research method — # data collection an statistical analysis e.g. You hypothesize a new after-school program will lead to higher grades — choose 2 similar groups of children who attend different schools —> implements new program —> not implementation

Question 58

Level of measurements - what are they and examples, descriptive designs the different types and what they mean, central tendency what is it examples.

Question 59

internal and external validity, how do you maintain this in research, what does it mean?

Question 60

longitudinal, predictive, single-study, correlation, survey -- what are they?

Answer 60

-- Predictive: -- Single-study: -- Correlation: -- Survey:

Question 61

ways qualitative researchers maintain accuracy in in their research?

Question 62

generalizability, transferability, experimental, quasi-experimental, gold standard.

Question 63

Examples of descriptive research question and designs

Answer 63

-- Descriptive: What is nurses' knowledge about best practices r/t to oral care? -- Survey: How are nurses involved in decision making about patient care, the work environment, and organizational practices? -- Cross-sectional: What are the differences in job satisfaction among nurses at different stages of their careers? -- Longitudinal: What is the effect of urinary incontinence on the quality of life of long-term-care residents over time? -- Case study: What are the appropriate assessments and interventions for a patient experiencing paraplegia after heart surgery? -- Single-subject study: What were the responses of an individual w/ type 2 DM to culturally appropriate counseling from a nurse? -- Correlation: What is the relationship b/w patient satisfaction and the timeliness and effectiveness of pain relief in a fast-track emergency unit? -- Predictive: Can feeding performance in neonates be predicted by indicators of feeding readiness?

Question 64

Central tendencies

Answer 64

CT - single number used to summarize the data​ Mean (average)​ Mode (number occurring the most in the data set)​ Median (middle number in the data set)​ ​

Question 65

Derived variable is not the primary variable

Answer 65

Not IV or DV that you study — e.g. can derive BMI from height and weight

Question 66

Value of descriptive data

Answer 66

Descriptive data are summarized and analyzed Provide useful information about the research participants Offers a quick glance Central tendency - measures how variables are alike Variability - measures how variables are different Helps the reader understand the information — It summarizes and analyzes

Question 67

1st step of analyzing data in QUANTitative research, how is the information gathered

Answer 67

From surverys

Question 68

Examples of descriptive data

Answer 68

Derived from the data set: Age of research participants (data set of34 males, 35 females) Years of work experience Scores on job satisfaction

Question 69

Nominal data

Answer 69

*also known as category* — e.g. colors, male or female, black or white, BSN students vs. PA students

Question 70

Ordinal data

Answer 70

Categorical data that are ranked: Pain scale has numbers from 1 to 10. On the scale 5 > 3, 10 > 8. We can’t tell that the difference between the two sets even though they are on the same scale

Question 71

Categorical Data examples vs. Continuous data

Answer 71

_Categorical:_ — Nominal = BSN vs. PA students — Ordinal = pain scale _Continuous:_ — Interval = temperature (NO TRUE ZERO) — Ratio = height, length, age (USES TRUE ZERO AND GOES UP)

Question 72

4 levels of measurement

Answer 72

Ratio Interval Ordinal Nominal

Question 73

Levels of measurement: categorical vs. continuous

Answer 73

Nominal Categorical data: leaders/nonleaders, males/females, ADN students/BSN students Ordinal Categorical data that are ranked: Pain scale has numbers from 1 to 10. On the scale 5 > 3, 10 > 8. We can’t tell that the difference between the two sets even though they are on the same scale Interval Data ranked with equal intervals e.g. temperature (don’t have a true zero, you can measure temperature below zero) Ratio Interval data that have a true zero e.g. height, length, age

Question 74

EXAM IMPORTANT INFORMATION

Answer 74

— Scatter plot — Measurement of height is considered = ratio — What is the 1st step in analyzing quantitative research data? Summarize descriptive data — Standard normal distribution: mean = 0 and std. deviation = 1 — Measures of central tendencies = mean, median, mode — A measure that is consistent, biased, and not accurate = systematic — Median in their data — Know mean, median, mode, range — Suppressive variable/confounded/extraneous — Ratio, ordinal, nominal

Question 75

Scatterplot’s purpose

Answer 75

Indicates the nature of the relationship between 2 variables - strength and direction

Question 76

Purpose of box and whiskers plot

Answer 76

Shows distribution over time Box contains 25th to 75th percentiles of the distribution

Question 77

Difference b/w positive z-score vs negative z-score

Answer 77

– **z-score** depicts the number of standard deviations above or below the mean an observation falls –Positive z-score: Above the mean –Negative z-score: Below the mean

Question 78

Standard scores

Answer 78

Describe the relative position of an observation within a distribution

Question 79

A priori

Answer 79

The researcher has to lay out EVERYTHING in front before conducting the study (everything they’re doing, methodology, design, sample sizes, location of sample sizes, laid out) —> IRB and come back —> CANNOT change b/c jeopardize subject (even if they thought of something better that can impact the study)

Question 80

Lack of disclosure

Answer 80

They don’t tell because it’s going to change the behavior; allowed b/c the details they leave out will not be details that cause harm/death to participants — e.g. observe if you’re friendly with each other (in a psych facility and outdoors

Question 81

Common statistical errors

Answer 81

*Using inappropriate statistic for level of measurement *Incorrectly entered data *Data presented without context *Lack of disclosure *Overinterpretation of results *Inconsistent or misleading presentation — must have enough details to judge the findings

Question 82

Evaluating descriptive data

Answer 82

*Enough details are provided to judge *Presentation is understandable and clear *Complete statistics are provided for each variable *Graphical representations are consistent *Statistics are not misleading, misinterpreted, or confusing

Question 83

How do we use descriptive data?

Answer 83

*Check trends in patient status *Review quality performance *Analyze distribution of disease in populations *Develop evidence about clinical outcomes *Use as basis for designing an intervention study *Judge patient conditions and make improvements

Question 84

Descriptive data is important when related to

Answer 84

Age and gender

Question 85

Prevalence vs. incidence

Answer 85

Prevalence: # of existing cases — e.g. # of diseases in a population Incidence: # of NEW cases

Question 86

Retrospective studies

Answer 86

A study that compares two groups of people: those with the disease or condition under study (cases) and a very similar group of people who do not have the disease or condition (controls). -- e.g. a group of 100 people with AIDS might be asked about their lifestyle choices and medical history in order to study the origins of the disease.

Question 87

Prospective studies

Question 88

Methodology refers to which method(s) in a study?

Answer 88

— Quantitative method — Qualitative — Mixed method

Answer 89

Does not use randomized groups

Question 90

Range

Answer 90

The highest and lowest values in the data set

Question 91

Researcher attempts to show the spread of the data from the mean. Which of the following refers to the spread?

Answer 91

Variance