Research methods 1 Flashcards
(89 cards)
1
Q
what is an experiment?
A
where the iv is manipulated to measure its effect on the dv
2
Q
what are aims?
A
identifies the purpose of the investigation
3
Q
what is a hypothesis?
A
a prediction made by researcher of the outcome of the research, how the iv will affcet the dv
4
Q
two-tailed
what is a non-directional hypothesis?
A
predicts that there will be a difference but does not specify what direction the difference will go in
5
Q
one tailed
what is a directional hypothesis?
A
predicts there will be a difference and what direction it will be in
e.g more less, higher slower etc
6
Q
what is an independent variable?
A
the variable that is manipulated
7
Q
what is the dependent variable?
A
variable that is measured
8
Q
what are levels of the iv?
A
the differnet groups or conditions in an experiment etc
9
Q
what is validity?
A
measuring what we claim to measure
10
Q
what does operationalise variables mean?
A
clearly defining the variables in terms of how they are being measured
11
Q
what is internal vailidity?
A
a measure of whether the changes in the dv are soely due to changes in the iv and not other factors
12
Q
what are extraneous variables?
A
all variables, which are not the iv but could affect the dv
13
Q
extraneous variables
what are situational aviables?
A
aspects of the environemnt that may affect the participants behaviour e.g noise lighting temp etc
14
Q
extraneous variables
what are particpiant vairables?
A
participants own individual differnces e.g age, gender, mood, intelligence etc
15
Q
what are confounding variables?
A
ev that change systematically with the iv making us unsure of the true source of change to the dv
influence both the iv and dv to the extent where it may cause a diff in the dv which appears to be due to the iv
16
Q
what are demand charecteristics?
A
leads to an ev- where the participants are affected by their awareness that they are part of a study
may try to please the researcher or deliberately skrew the results
17
Q
what is social desirability?
A
particpants being worried about being negatively judged so threy behave intetionally well
18
Q
what are investigator effects?
A
the researcher unintetionally or unconsicously influencing the outcome of any research they are conducting e.g facial expressions, appearence such as gender or race
19
Q
what is standardistaion?
A
using the exact same formalised procedures and instructions for every single participant involved in the research
20
Q
what is randomisation?
A
using chance to reduce the effects of bias from investigator effects by taking away control from the researcher
21
Q
what is ecological validity?
A
the ability to generalise study findings to the real world
22
Q
what are observations?
A
a study where the researcher watches and/or listens to particpants engaging in what behaviour being studied- no manipulation but can be used as a gathering tool in an experiment to measure the dv
23
Q
observation
what is a naturalistic observation?
A
takes place in the setting where the target behaviour would usually occur
24
Q
observations
what is a controlled observation?
A
takes place in a controlled environment e.g a lab
25
# observations
what is an overt observation?
participants are aware that they are part of an observation
26
# observations
what is a covert observation?
participants are not aware that they are part of an observation
27
# observations
what is participant observation?
observer actively involved in the activities of the study
28
# observations
what is non-participant observation?
researcher observing the behaviour from a distance meaning they are not actively involved
29
# observation design
what are unstructured observations?
researcher records all behaviours that they see there is no system used with **small scale observations**
30
# observation design
what are structured observations?
used with **large scale observations-** simplifying target behaviours using behavioural categories
31
# observation design
what are behavioural categories?
| structured observations
target behaviour observed is broken up into more observable and measurable components- these are recorded
e.g aggressive behaviour being broken down into punching swearing etc
32
# observation design- sampling methods
what is the difference between time sampling and event sampling?
| structured observations
event- involves counting the number of times a particular behaviour occurs
time- recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame
33
why are self report techniques used?
best way to understand ppl behaviours is by simply asking them about it
includes interviews and questionares
34
# self report techniques
what are questionares?
set of pre written questions used to assess thoughts and feelings
35
# self report techniques
what is the differnce between open and closed questions?
open- no fixed answers giving respondent freedom to answer however they want producing qualitative data
closed- fixed number of responses limiting how much participant can give produces quantitiave data
types include:
likert scale, fixed choce and semantic differentiation
36
# self report techniques
what are interviews?
type of self report technique involving interviewer asking q's and recording responses
37
# self report techniques
what are the different types of interviews?
structured- pre-determined questions
unstructured- no set questions
semi-structured- set of pre- determined questions but resercher can ask follow up questions to get better understanding
38
# self report techniques
how are interviews designed?
* **interview schedule-** the list of questions that the interviewer intends to ask- this should be **standardised** to reduce investigator effects
* interviewer will **take notes throughout** the process or it may be **recorded** to analyse later
* usually involve an interviewer and single participant or a group of participants
* **one-to-one** = conducted in a quiet room-increases likelihood of opening up more than in a group
* **start the interview with some neutral** questions to make interviewee to feel comfortable and relaxed- establishing rapport
* continuously reminded that their answers will reamin confidential esspecially if it is on a personal or sensitive topic
39
what are true experiments and the types?
where the iv is manipulated
1. lab experiments- conducted under highly controlled conditons, researcher decides where it takes place time etc using standardised procedures participants are randomly allocated to each iv group MEANING RESERCHER IS MANIPULATING THE IV
2. field experiments- done in everyday environment of participant but researcher still manipualtes the iv
40
what are quasi experiments and they types?
where the iv is not manipualted BUT changes naturally
1. **quasi**- the naturally accuring iv is a diff between the people that already exists e.g age gender the researcher examines the effect of this on the dv if participants are already arranged into the levels of the iv before the study starts= quasi
2. **natural**- conducted in everyday environment of particpants BUT experimenter has no control over the iv as it naturall occurs in real life key thing- they fully take place in th eparticipants normal environment and iv isnt manipulated whereas field even though hapoens in participants everyday environment the IV is manipulated by resercher the DV may occur naturally or be devised by researcher
41
# experimental designs
what is an independent groups design?
diff particpants are used in each condition/group of the iv
sometimes include control condition
thses groups are then compared
42
# experimental designs
what are repeated measures design?
the same participants take part in each condition of the
diffs between conditions are analysed for each person then avaerage diffs are focused on for analysis
43
# experimental designs
what is counterbalancing?
particpants complete the conditions but in the a diff order e.g 2 conditions= some complete a then b some b then a etc
does not remove order effects but helps to balance them out as it will not cause a diff in the dv
44
# experimental designs
what is the matched pairs design?
participants are matched on key variables ( potential confound)
then one member of each pair is randomlly allocated into the experiment group and other control group
45
what is external validity and what are the two types?
Whether data/findings can be generalised to other situations outside the research environment it was originally conducted in
• two types= ecological and temporal validity
46
what can reduce ecological validity in addition to the setting?
task lacking mundane realism- dissimilar to something you'd do in real life
47
what is temporal validity?
whether the findings from a particular study remain accurate over time
48
# assesment of validity
what is face validity?
whether a test, scale or measure subjectively appears to be measuring what it claims based on what it looks like
49
# assesment of validity
what is concurrent validity?
seeing how well scores correlate with the scores of another recognised and well establisehed test that is already regarded as valid
strong positive correlation (0.8) between 2 sets of data= valid- high concurrent validity
50
what is the debate between eco vs internal val?
if ev's are controled internal val will be high but it will be nothing like real life = low eco val
if evs are not controlled= ecological validity high but internal validity will be low
51
what is reliability?
the extent to which a test/ measure or procedure produces a consistent finding every time it is done
52
# asses reliability
what is test- retest?
readministering the same test or questionaire to the same people under the same conditions but on seperate occasions- if reliable results will be similar or the same on both occasions
BUT may not be enough time between ocassions so ps may remember answers
53
# asses reliability
what is inter-observer reliability?
~ most methods are open to interpretation= diff researchers may Interpret the same situation in a diff way to another researcher = subjectivity bias
* ior- must be established to ensure that more than one researcher interpret a situation in the same way
54
how can reliability be improved?
improving replicability- so it can be repeated allowing reliability to be tested
standardised procedures/ controlled environments- improve the replicability allowing peliability to be tested
55
# ethical issues
who makes the rules on what is ethical or unethical?
the british psychological society- code of ethics that all researcher must stick to when conductiong psychological research
~ the guidelines are built around principles respect competnce etc
56
# ethical issues
what is a cost benifit analysis?
weighing the ethical costs against the benifits of the research e.g if a study decieves 100 ppl but has the potential to improve the quality of ppls lives- this would be jusdged as ethical using cost benefit ana
57
# ethical issues
what is informed consent?
**the participants being aware of the studys aims, procedures and their rights + what data will be used for = can make informed decison about if they want to take part or not**
* if participant is under 16- parental consent needed along with assent from child reserchers should be mindful of non verbal cues children may make which indicate they don not want to take part
58
# ethical issues
what is deception?
lying about the true aims of a study
* witholding info- not telling all details of study
* deliberate lying
both mean consent cannot be given but can be acceptable only if some details are with held
59
# ethical issues
what is protection from harm?
whether the particpant left the study in the same state that they entered or wheter the harm is no greater than what the particpant has experienced in real life
60
# ethical issues
how to deal with deception, harm, lack of consent?
debriefing
alternative sources of consent
right to withdraw
61
# ethical issues
what is the right to withdraw?
ensuring that p's know about their right to withdraw themselves and/or their data from the research at any time
must be on consent form
62
# ethical issues
what is debriefing?
revealing the true nature of the reserach once they have taken part, told how they were decieved, given option to withdraw data, reassurence, give them contact details of relevant body if have ethical concerns + details on support if they need it
63
# ethical issues
what are the alternative sources of consent?
1. **retrospective-** give consent for data to be used in reserch once they have taken part and been debriefed
2. **prior general-** asking p's for consent to variety research including ones involing depception = technically given consent to be in any research
3. **presumptive**- asking a group of p's representitive to p's telling them everything asking if they would take part- if they do can presume that my p's would also
64
# ethical issues
what is privacy and confidentiality?
p- right to control what info about themsleves is made public ( right to remain anonymous)
c- right to have personal data protected
ensured by using inp's initails or anonymous code
should be regulary remainded that their confidentiality will be maintained
65
# ethical issues
what are the rules of consent forms?
* p's told **what they are required to do**- duration aslo included
* requires p's agreement- sign name date
* essential ethical details:
* no presure to consent/ can withdraw at any time
* data will be kept confidential and anyonymous
* include tick boxes like - i understand that i will be debriefed at the end etc
66
# ethical issues
what should debriefs include?
* must tell them how they were decieved
* must tell them what the other conditions were
* thank them
* remind them that data is confidential
* right to withdraw- do you stil consent to your data being used
* protection from harm- behaviour was normal, contact to ethics board
67
what are correlations?
a mathematical technique which identifies an association/ relationship between two co-variables
shows direction and strength
68
what is the diff between positive and negative correlation?
* positive- one variable goes up the other goes up
* negative- one goes up the other goes down
* no correlation- no relationship between x and y
69
how are correlations and experiments different?
* c- iv is not manipulated= cannot establish cause and effect variables are measured not manipulated
* e- iv is manipulated= cuse and effecr established- one thing is changed to see its effect on dv
70
what are correlation coefficents?
the strength and relationship of a correlation
* range between -1.0 ( perfect negative) and +1.0 ( perfect positive)
* closer ccc is to -1 or 1= strng relationship
* closer to 0= weaker relatonship
71
# correlation
what is a directional hypothesis?
the direction of the correlation is predicted positive or negative
e.g there is a negative....
72
# correlation
what is a non-directional hypothesis?
there is a correlation
doesn't specify any direction
73
# correlation
how are conclusions made?
there is a relationship/association/correlation between x and y
74
what are pilot studies?
a small scale 'trial run' of the investigation which takes place before the real one is conducted
75
# pilot studies
what do they do?
aim is to check the procedure-allow the researcher to iron out any potential problems and make any modifications that may be needed
76
# pilot studies
why are they important?
opportunity to identify and modify the investigation= save time and money that could be wasted during the real thing
77
# pilot studies
how to reduce experimenter bias and demand characteristics in psychological research?
**1. single blind procedures-** witholding the aim of the research from participants
**2. double blind procedures-**neither the participants nor the research is aware of the aims to prevent bias from both sides or don't know what condition the pps are in
**3. control groups-** a neutral group to formulate comparisions with a set a baseline
78
what is the difference between sample and population?
sample- a small group of ppl selected from a target population
population- is a large group of individuals that are of interest to the reasercher
79
what is random sampling?
all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected
1. list all members in tartget population
2. all names are assigned are assigned a number
3. sample is generated using a lottery method e.g random number generator
80
what is systematic sampling?
every nth member of target population is selected e.g every 10th or 5th
1. sampling frame is produced where all members are organised into alphabetical order
2. a sampling system is then nominated e.g every 5th person
3. this interval is randomly determined to reduce bias
4. work through until sample is generated
81
what is stratified sampling?
reflects proportions of people in certain subgroups within a population
82
what is opportunity sampling?
researcher selects anyone who is willing to participate- whoever is available at the time of sampling will be included
83
what volunteer sampling?
participants select themselves to be a part of the sample
84
How to work out stratified sampling?
Sample= 20
Target Population= 100
10= Girls
90= Boys
10/100 *20= 2 - Girls
18 Boys
85
How do you calculate percentage change/decrease?
Change/ original x100
86
How do you calculate percentage increase?
New-Old
That answer then put in ans/old x100
87
# sampling methods
what are the steps to stratified sampling?
1. strata are identified
2. percentages of population are reflected in the sample
3. random sampling then used to select the number of participants required from within each statum
4. aim- the proportions of ppl in population sub-groups to be reflected in the sample
88
# correlations
what are the correlation coeffeicents meanings?
0 to 0.3 = weak
0.3 - 0.7 = moderate
0.7 to 1 = strong
* + or - infront = strong, moderate or weak positive or negative correlation
* if number is -.40= -0.4 if -.76 = -0.76= 0.8
* just add a 0 to start and round up or down
89
# validity
hwo can internal validity be improved in an experiement?
* using control groups
* standardisation
* blind procedure
