Research methods (1) Flashcards
1
Q
What does FORE stand for?
A
Falsifiability - possibility that a statement or hypothesis can be proved wrong
Objectivity - data not effected by researcher
Replicability - record procedures in order to allow other researchers to repeat them
Empirical method - rely on direct observation or testing not hearsay or rational arguments
2
Q
What is a paradigm?
A
Shared set of assumptions about a subject matter
3
Q
What is a paradigm shift?
A
When the shared set of assumptions shifts because of an overwhelming amount of contradictory evidence
4
Q
What are the two types of theory construction?
A
Induction and deduction
5
Q
What is an induction theory construct?
A
observation - hypothesis - conduct a study to test hypothesis - draw conclusions - propose theory
6
Q
What is a deduction theory construct?
A
observation - propose theory - hypothesis - conduct a study to test hypothesis - draw conclusion
7
Q
Why is hypothesis testing important?
A
In order to make clear and precise predictions on the basis of a theory. Hypothesis needs to be tested using systematic and objective methods
8
Q
What are the four experimental methods of conducting research?
A
Lab experiments
Field experiments
Natural experiments
Quasi experiments
9
Q
What are the seven non-experimental methods of conducting research?
A
Observations
Questionnaires
Interviews
Case studies
Content analysis
Meta analysis
Correlational analysis
10
Q
What is a lab experiment?
A
Variables can be controlled
Participants aware they are taking part
Controlled environment
11
Q
What are the advantages of a lab experiment?
A
High internal validity (any change in DV is caused by IV)
Easy to replicate
12
Q
What are the disadvantages of a lab experiment?
A
Demand characteristics
Low ecological validity (cannot be generalised as pps may change behaviour)
13
Q
What is a field experiment?
A
Natural environment
Pps unaware
IV deliberately manipulated
14
Q
What are the advantages of a field experiment?
A
High ecological validity
Lack of demand characteristics
15
Q
What are the disadvantages of a field experiment?
A
Low internal validity
Hard to replicate
16
Q
What is a natural experiment?
A
An experiment where it is unethical to or researchers are unable to manipulate the IV. IV occurs naturally
17
Q
What are the advantages of a natural experiment?
A
Allows research where IV cannot be manipulated
High ecological validity
18
Q
What are the disadvantages of a natural experiment?
A
Lack of direct relationship between IV and DV
Lack of random allocation
19
Q
What is a quasi-experiment?
A
IV is a difference that already exists e.g. age, gender, disorders
20
Q
What are the advantages of a quasi-experiment?
A
Allows comparison between people
Can be carried out in a lab meaning high control/replicability
21
Q
What are the disadvantages of a quasi-experiment?
A
May be carried out in a lab meaning low ecological validity
Lack of random allocation
22
Q
What are independent variables?
A
Variables that are manipulated
23
Q
What are dependent variables?
A
Variable that is measured to see if it has been effected
24
Q
What are extraneous variables?
A
Anything other than IV which may have an effect on the DV. These variables CAN be controlled by experimenter e.g. age, time limit, content of word lists
25
What are confounding variables?
Variables that AREN'T controlled for and do ruin the experiment e.g. weather, mood of pps, personalities, individual differences
26
What are research aims?
Stated intentions of what questions are planned to be asked
27
What is a hypothesis?
Formal, unambiguous statement of what is predicted. Must contain both conditions of IV and expected outcome of DV which must be operationalised and measurable
28
What is a directional hypothesis?
Hypothesis that states whether the DV outcome is expected to be higher or lower e.g. WILL score higher/lower
29
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
Hypothesis that doesn't state the direction of the DV, just that there will be a difference e.g. significant difference
30
What is a null-hypothesis?
A hypothesis where there is a prediction of no difference between two IV conditions on the outcome of the DV e.g. no significant difference
31
What is reliability?
CONSISTENCY
32
What is validity?
ACCURACY
33
What is internal reliability?
Each pp is treated the same
34
What is external reliability?
Same results after repeated test
35
What is test-retest reliability?
Test the same person twice
36
What is inter-observer reliability?
Compare observations from different observers
37
How should reliability be improved?
Repetition. Find the mean
38
What is internal validity?
Is the experiment measuring what it's meant to be measuring? (Is it the IV effect only)
39
What is external validity?
Generalisable beyond experimental settings
40
What is ecological validity?
Realistic setting?
41
What is population validity?
Applicable sample?
42
What is temporal validity?
Does it stand the 'test of time'?
43
What is face validity?
Whether it looks like it measures what is should. Eyeballing
44
What is concurrent validity?
Whether findings are similar to those on a well established test
45
How should validity be improved?
Larger sample size. More realistic setting
46
What is an independent groups experiment?
Each group only does one IV condition
47
What are the advantages of independent groups?
No order effects
Participants only used once
48
What are the three experimental designs?
Independent groups
Repeated measures
Matched pairs
49
What are the disadvantages of independent groups?
Participants in different groups are not the same
Double the people means more money and time spent
50
What are the four experimental research methods?
Quasi
Lab
Natural
Field
51
What is a repeated measures experiment?
One group of participants does both IV conditions
52
What are the advantages of a repeated measure experiment?
Experiment more efficient
No effect of participant variables
Less people needed
53
What are the disadvantages of a repeated measure experiment?
Order effects
Practise effects (boredom or fatigue may effect next task)
Each pp has to do two tasks
54
What is a matched pairs experiment?
Pps matched beforehand on relevant characteristics then split into two groups who do one IV condition each
55
What are the advantages of a matched pairs experiment?
Experimental control utilised to reduce one or more sources of error variability
56
What are the disadvantages of a matched pairs experiment?
Participants can't be matched exactly
Matching takes money and time
57
What are demand characteristics?
A pp changing their behaviour to meet the aim of the investigation
58
What are investigator effects?
The effect of the investigator's behaviour on the research outcome. Can be conscious or unconscious
59
What is a single blind design?
When a pp is unaware of the research aims of the investigation
60
What are ways to deal with investigator effects and demand characteristics?
Single blind design
Double blind design
61
What is a double blind design?
When neither investigator nor pp are aware of the research aims of the study
62
What is a control group?
A group of participants who do not undergo a change in the IV condition
63
What is a confederate?
A fake pp in the study that has been instructed on how to behave
64
Why is random allocation important?
Used to reduce pp variables. Each pp has a chance of being in any condition
65
What is randomisation?
Use of chance methods to control for effect of bias when designing materials and deciding order of conditions
66
What is standardisation?
Use of standardised procedures and instructions for all pps in a study to avoid investigator effects
67
What is a pilot study?
Small scale trial run of experiment. Checks procedure, materials and instructions work
68
What are the advantages of a pilot study?
Allow for changes to be made
Can see how people will react
69
What are the five sampling methods?
Opportunity sampling
Random sampling
Stratified sampling
Systematic sampling
Volunteer sampling
70
What is opportunity sampling?
Anyone in the vicinity who is willing and available
71
What is random sampling?
All members of target pop have an equal chance of being chosen
72
What is stratified sampling?
Reflects the portions of people in sub-groups of target pop
73
What is systematic sampling?
Every nth member of the target population is selected
74
What is volunteer sampling?
A self-select sample often replying to an advert
75
What are the advantages of opportunity sampling?
Willing pps
Easy
Accessible
76
What are the advantages of random sampling?
Easy
Free from bias
Willing pps
Generalisable
Equal chance of being chosen
77
What are the advantages of stratified sampling?
Highly representative
78
What are the advantages of systematic sampling?
Free from bias
Easy
79
What are the advantages of volunteer sampling?
No bias
Easy
Willing pps
80
What are the disadvantages of opportunity sampling?
Sample bias
May not be generalisable
81
What are the disadvantages of random sampling?
Time consuming
Costly
Many pps
82
What are the disadvantages of stratified sampling?
Time consuming
Costly
Many pps
83
What are the disadvantages of systematic sampling?
Risk of data manipulation
Many pps
84
What are the disadvantages of volunteer sampling?
Get what your given
85
What are the four different ethical guidelines?
1. Informed consent
2. Deception
3. Protection from harm
4. Privacy/confidentiality
86
What is informed consent?
Should be got before study - permission from pps to use them and their data. Inform of everything. Parental and children consent - respect
87
How should informed consent be dealt with after it has been broken?
Retrospective: Do study, tell after, debrief and ask for consent to use data
Presumptive: Ask people who are similar to pps if they would consent
Prior general: Pps give consent and agree to some unknown deception
Right to withdraw
88
What is deception?
No lies. Sometimes deception unavoidable
89
How should deception be dealt with after it has been broken?
Debrief - when and why deception occurs
Right to withdraw/withhold data - cost-benefit analysis by ethics committee
90
What is protection from harm?
Protect pps from psychological and physiological harm. Cost-benefit analysis by ethics committee
91
How should protection from harm be dealt with after it has been broken?
Debrief - inform pps of true nature of study
Right to withdraw/withhold data
Counselling - offered by researcher if pps subject to stress/embarrassment
92
What is privacy/confidentiality?
All info confidential, only in public spaces or lab, not spying on homes
93
How should privacy/confidentiality be dealt with if it has been crossed?
Anonymity - use numbers not names, never broadcast footage, no photos released
94
What does a consent form need to contain?
1. Info about the study (basic aim and informing pps of procedures of the study)
2. Right to withdraw
3. Assurance of confidentiality
4. An opportunity to ask any questions about the research
5. Space to sign which states they have read and understood the info and have agreed to take part in the research
95
What should a debrief form look like?
1. After thanking pps explain purpose of study, what you predict and possible applications of the work
2. Remind results are confidential and are published anonymously
3. If deception used explain when and why
4. Offer counselling and they are free to withdraw their data from the sample
5. Tell them to feel free to contact you, provide a name and contact info
6. If needed ask pps to refrain talking about experiment while it's still going and explain why
7. Thank them for taking part
96
What are the different types of observations?
Natural
Controlled
Overt
Covert
Participant
Non-participant
Structured
Unstructured
97
What is a controlled observation?
Some variables controlled, usually in a lab, pps know they are being studied
98
What is a natural observation?
Studied in natural setting, everything left as it is, no interference
99
What is an overt observation?
Pps know they are being studied
100
What is a covert observation?
Pps unaware of observation
100
What is a non-participant observation?
Observer watch from a distance, doesn't interact
100
What is a participant observation?
Observer joins studied group, studied from inside
101
What is a structured observation?
Organised, behavioural categories and sampling procedures used
102
What is an unstructured observation?
No system, record all behaviour
103
What are the strengths and limitations of a natural observation?
+Greater ecological validity
+Generalisable to everyday life as in natural environment
+No outside interference from the researcher
+Lack of demand characteristics
- low internal validity/lack of control
- Cannot be replicated
104
What are the strengths and limitations of a controlled observation?
+ Can be replicated due to standardised procedures - high reliability
+ Often numerical data (quantitative) which is easier to analyse
+ Fairly quick to conduct
+ Generalisable
- May have low external validity
105
What are the strengths and limitations of an overt observation?
+ Ethical as consent can be given
- Demand characteristic may affect validity
106
What are the strengths and limitations of a covert observation?
+ No demand characteristics
- Difficult to get the time/privacy to write the notes
- Ethical issues, people may not want behaviour to be recorded in public
107
What are the strengths and limitations of a participant observation?
+ Enhance validity as more in-depth data
+ Only way to observe some behaviour e.g. gangs
- May be subjective, researcher starts to identify too strongly with those they are studying
108
What are the strengths and limitations of a non-participant observation?
+ Objective meaning increased validity
+ Less ethical issues
- Loss of insight into participants
which may reduce validity
109
What are the strengths and limitations of a structured observation?
+ Easy analysis as quantative results
+ More objective if pre-determined categories
- Could miss behaviour if doesn't fit into pre-determined categories
110
What are the strengths and limitations of an unstructured observation?
+ More in-depth qualitative data if watching everything
- Less objective
- Hard to analyse as not quantative data
111
What are behavioural categories?
Categorising the behaviours intended to be viewed, usually decided before observation takes place
112
What is event sampling?
Counting number of times a specific behaviour occurs within a time limit, watching the entire time
113
What is time sampling?
Recording any behaviours which occur in a time interval (e.g. watch for a minute every half hour for a day)
114
What are the strengths and limitations of event sampling?
+ Records infrequent behaviour
- May miss some information as loss of concentration
- Complex behaviours may be oversimplified
115
What are the strengths and limitations of time sampling?
+ Reduces number of observations
- May be unrepresentable
116
What is a questionnaire?
A pre-set list of written questions or items to which a participant responds
117
What are the advantages of a questionnaire?
Quick and easy to analyse result
Can get alot of data easily
Replicable
118
What are the disadvantages of a questionnaire?
Might not be truthful (due to anonymity) --> Social desirability bias
Volunteer bias
119
What are open questions?
Where the respondent provides own answers in words e.g. how are you finding psychology?
120
What are the strengths of open questions?
Response isn't restricted
121
What are closed questions?
Respondent has limited choices e.g. how enjoyable is psychology on a scale of 1-5?
122
What are the strengths of closed questions?
Easy to analyse
123
What are the weaknesses of open questions?
Hard to analyse
124
What are the weaknesses of closed questions?
Restricted responses
125
What factors should be considered when writing questions for a questionnaire?
Avoid specialist terms
Avoid leading questions
Use appropriate language
Use filler questions
Clarity
Pilot study
The order of questions
126
What is an interview?
A face to face meeting between an interviewer and an interviewee
127
What are the advantages of an interview?
More likely to be truthful as can read body language so can tell if lying
More in depth as can ask follow up questions
128
What are the disadvantages of an interview?
Longer to carry out/analyse
Pressure on pps
Social desirability
Risk of interviewer bias
129
What are structured interviews?
List of pre-determined questions in a fixed order
130
What are semi-structured interviews?
List of questions in advance. Further questions asked based off previous answers
131
What are unstructured interviews?
No set questions, general topic, free flowing, encouraged to elaborate
132
What factors should be consider while doing an interview?
Quiet room
Build a rapport
Ethics
Record interview
Interview effects
133
What is social desirability bias?
Giving favourable answers due to the presence of the interviewer
134
What is the interviewer effect?
The effect the interviewer's presence has on answers, causing bias
135
What is a correlation coefficient?
A number between -1 and +1 which informs us of the strength and direction of the relationship between the two co-variables
136
What is the difference between a correlation and an experiment?
A correlation is only assessing the relationship between two co-variables. There is no cause and effect
137
What are the strengths of using a correlation analysis?
Useful starting point for research
Relatively economical (normally secondary data)
138
What are the limitations of using a correlation analysis?
No cause and effect can (or should be) established
Intervening variables may explain the relationship seen, and lead to false conclusions
139
What is a meta-analysis?
Results are collected from many larger studies to see and overall picture of the findings
140
What are the benefits of a meta-analysis?
Overview can lead to a more accurate understanding of a behaviour
141
What are the limitations of a meta-analysis?
Not using your own data means you have no knowledge of the accuracy of the data
142
What are case studies?
A detailed in depth analysis of an individual or small groups. Long time and large amounts of qualitative data
143
What are the advantages of case studies?
Rich detailed insight
Used to support or challenge other research
144
What are the disadvantages of case studies?
Can be prone to researcher bias
Not very reliable and little validity
145
What is a content analysis?
Studying people indirectly through the communications they have produced. Turns qualitative data into quantative date using categories and tallying (coding units).
146
What is a thematic analysis?
Any emerging themes that are recurrent during the content analysis that are then studied in more depth
147
What are some examples of categories/coding units that may be used in a content analysis?
Word
Theme
Character
Time
Space
148
What are the advantages of performing a content analysis?
Detailed, in-depth analysis
Can easily compare to other results
Can present results graphically (clear results)
149
What are the disadvantages of performing a content analysis?
Subjective nature of creating themes and coding units may lead to an investigator bias
Time consuming
150
What is a peer review?
All aspects of the written investigation must be scrutinised by a small group peers. They will be looking for objectivity, bias, ethics, falsifiability, replicability etc
The peer review must be carried out objectively and by reviewers who do not know the author.
151
What are the three main purposes of a peer review?
Allocation of research funding
Publication of research into academic journals and books
Assessing the research rating of university departments
152
What are the advantages of a peer review?
Protects the quality of published work (minimises fraud and increases the credibility of psychology as a science)
153
What are the disadvantages of a peer review?
May be bias reviews e.g. it may be contradictory evidence to the peers own study
Publication bias e.g. 'exciting' finds may be buried because they are contradictory to public belief
